Chaeron (Chairon), a son of Apollo and Thero, the daughter of Phydas, is the mythical founder of Chaeroneia in Boeotia. (Paus. ix. 40.3; Steph. Byz. s. v. Chaironeia; Plut. Sulla, 17.)
City of Boeotia, formerly called Arne, its unguents, Chaeroneans worship sceptre made by Hephaestus, battle of Ch., Arcadians defeated by Romans at Ch., Taxilus defeated at Ch. by Sulla, lion of Ch., trophies.
In this battle, Philip II Macedon defeated the rest of the Greeks.
The course of later history proved the battle of Chaeronea in 338, in which Philip of Macedon and his Greek allies defeated a coalition of other Greek states, to have been a decisive turning point in Greek history: never again would the states of Greece make foreign policy for themselves without considering, and usually following, the wishes of outside powers. This change marked the end of the Greek city-states as independent actors in international politics, but they were to retain their significance as the basic economic and social units of the Greek world. But that role would be fulfilled from now on as subjects or allies of the new kingdoms that later emerged from the Macedonian kingdom of Philip and his son Alexander after the latter's death in 323 B.C. The Hellenistic kingdoms, as these new monarchies are called, like the Roman provinces that in turn eventually replaced them as political masters of the Greeks, depended on the local leaders of the Greek city-states to collect taxes for the imperial treasuries and to insure the loyalty and order of the rest of the citizens.
This text is from: Thomas Martin's An Overview of Classical Greek History from Homer to Alexander, Yale University Press. Cited Jan 2003 from Perseus Project URL below, which contains bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Of the gods, the people of Chaeroneia honor most the scepter which Homer says4 Hephaestus made for Zeus, Hermes received from Zeus and gave to Pelops, Pelops left to Atreus, Atreus to Thyestes, and Agamemnon had from Thyestes. This scepter, then, they worship, calling it Spear
Situated at the NW entrance to the region in the narrow Kephissos
plain lying between Mt. Thourion and Mt. Akontion, at the modern village of Chaironeia
(formerly Kapraina).
The gateway to Boiotia, Chaironeia had a Neolithic settlement but
apparently none in the Mycenaean age. Whether it is the Amne of Homer is doubtful.
Chaironeia was subject to Orchomenos up to the end of the 5th c. B.C., then with
Akmaiphia and Kopai formed one of the 11 Boiotian districts until 387 and again,
after a period of autonomy, from 371 to 338 B.C. It then enjoyed independence
in the Boiotian Koinon and was granted the status of a civitas libera by the Romans.
Three famous battles were fought in the Chaironeian plain: in 338 Philip II's
Macedonians carried off a decisive victory over the Athenians, the Boiotians,
and their allies; in 245 the army of the Aitolian League fought that of the Boiotian
League; and in 86 B.C. Sulla and his 20,000 Romans crushed Mithnidates' forces,
over 100,000 strong, commanded by Archelaos.
The city of Chaironeia, of which there are only insignificant remains,
lies at the foot of Mt. Petrachos, on top of which is the acropolis. Plutarch
(ca. 46-120) was born and died here. In the Church of the Panagia can be seen
a marble Roman seat, the so-called seat of Plutarch, and many inscribed stones
in the walls. At the foot of the N summit of Mt. Petrachos is a little theater
completely cut in the rock; its 14 tiers are arranged in two unequal blocks. Above
the last tier is a dedication to Apollo Daphnaphonios and Artemis Soodina. The
Chapel of Hagia Paraskevi is built on the site of a Temple of Herakles on the
slopes of Mt. Thourion. The sanctuary of Sarapis, where many slaves were freed
from the 3d to 1st c. B.C., has not been traced.
The acropolis occupies both summits of Mt. Petrachos and dominates
the Kephissos valley from a height of 150 m. Around it is a 4th c. rampart, well
preserved and >built in regular courses except on the W slope where the >old wall
has been preserved and strengthened with cyclopean masonry. To the E a ramp cut
in the rock led to the only gate. Several towers fortified the rampart. The field
where the battle of 338 took place is 2 km E of the village, between Mt. Thourion
and the Kephissos, along the banks of the Haimon brook. The victorious Spartans
burned their dead close by the Kephissos. Excavation of a tumulus at this spot
revealed a pyre, 10 m in diameter and 0.75 m high, with bones and fragments of
weapons in the ashes; it was covered over by a conical mound of earth 70 m in
diameter and 7 m high. The bodies of the Sacred Band of Thebans that was crushed
by Alexander were buried several days after the battle. From ancient times the
Lion of Chaironeia was believed to be their funeral monument. Discovered in 1818,
then smashed, restored, and replaced on a plinth 3 m high, the lion stands 5.50
m high; it is made of five blocks of marble, three of them hollow. It is a replica
of the lion on the polyandrion of Thespini. The monument is on the N side of a
rectangular penbolos (approximately 24 x 15 m). Within this area was found a tomb
4.30 x 3.60 m ringed by a wall 2.30 m high and containing 254 skeletons arranged
in seven layers; two of the bodies had been incinerated. The weapons had been
removed (the skeletons are at the National Museum in Athens, the other finds at
the Chaironeia Museum).
P. Roesch, ed.
This text is from: The Princeton encyclopedia of classical sites,
Princeton University Press 1976. Cited Nov 2002 from
Perseus Project URL below, which contains 7 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
A town in Boeotia, on the Cephissus, near the frontier of Phocis, memorable for the defeat of the Athenians and the Boeotians by Philip of Macedon, which crushed the liberties of Greece, B.C. 338, and for Sulla's victory over the army of Mithridates, B.C. 86. Chaeronea was the birthplace of Plutarch. Several remains of the ancient city are to be seen at Capraena, more particularly a theatre excavated in the rock, an aqueduct, and the marble lion (broken in pieces) which adorned the sepulchre of the Boeotians who fell at the battle of Chaeronea.
This text is cited Oct 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains interesting hyperlinks
Eth. Chaironeus, fem. Chaironis: Adj. Chaironikos: Kapurna. A town
of Boeotia, situated near the Cephissus, upon the borders of Phocis. The town
itself does not appear to have been of much importance; but it has obtained great
celebrity in consequence of the battles which were fought in its neighbourhood.
Its position naturally rendered it the scene of military operations, since it
stood in a small plain, which commanded the entrance from Phocis into Boeotia,
and which accordingly would be occupied by an army desirous of protecting Boeotia
from an invading force. Chaeroneia was situated at the head of the plain, shut
in by a high projecting rock, which formed, in ancient times, the citadel of the
town, and was called Petrachus or Petrochus (Petrachos, Paus. ix. 41. § 6 ; Petrochos,
Plut. Sull. 17). The town lay at the foot of the hill, and is said to have derived
its name from Chaeron, who, according to the statement of Plutarch, built it towards
the east, whereas it had previously faced the west. (Paus. ix. 40. § 5; Steph.
B. s. v.; Plut. de Curiosit. 1.)
Chaeroneia is not mentioned by Homer; but by some of the ancient writers
it was supposed to be the same town as the Boeotian Arne. (Hom. Il. ii. 507.)
In the historical period it was dependent upon Orchomenus (Thuc. iv. 67). It is
first mentioned in B.C. 447, when an important battle was fought near the town,
in consequence of which the Athenians lost the supremacy which they had exercised
for a short period in Boeotia. Chaeroneia had previously been in the hands of
the party favourable to the Athenians; but having been seized by the opposite
party, Tolmides, at the head of a small Athenian force, marched against it. He
succeeded in taking the town, but was shortly afterwards defeated by the Boeotians
in the neighbourhood, and fell in the battle. (Thuc. i. 113; Diod. xii. 6.) In
B.C. 424 a plot was formed to betray the town to the Athenians, but the project
was betrayed, and the place was occupied by a strong Boeotian force. (Thuc. iv.
76, 89.) In the Phocian war Chaeroneia was unsuccessfully besieged by Onomarchus,
the Phocian leader, but it was afterwards taken by his son Phalaecus. (Diod. xvi.
33, 39.)
Another and much more celebrated battle was fought at Chaeroneia on
the 7th of August, B.C. 338, in which Philip, by defeating the united forces of
the Athenians and Boeotians, crushed the liberties of Greece. Of the details of
this battle we have no account, but an interesting memorial of it still remains.
We learn from Pausanias (ix. 40. § 10) and Strabo (ix. p. 414) that the sepulchre
of the Thebans who fell in the battle, was near Chaeroneia; and the former writer
states that this sepulchre was surmounted by a lion, as an emblem of the spirit
of the Thebans. The site of the monument is marked by a tumulus about a mile,
or a little more, from the khan of Kapurna, on the right side of the road towards
Orchomenus; but when the spot was visited by Leake, Dodwell and Gell, the lion
had completely disappeared. A few years ago, however, the mound of earth was excavated,
and a colossal lion discovered, deeply imbedded in its interior. This noble piece
of sculpture, though now strewed in detached masses about the sides and interior
of the excavation, may still be said to exist nearly in its original integrity.
It is evident, from the appearance of the fragments, that it was composed from
the first of more than one block, although not certainly of so many as its remains
now exhibit... This lion may, upon the whole, be pronounced the most interesting
sepulchral monument in Greece. It is the only one dating from the better days
of Hellas--with the exception perhaps of the tumulus of Marathon--the identity
of which is beyond dispute.
The third great battle fought at Chaeroneia was the one in which Sulla
defeated the generals of Mithridates in B.C. 86. Of this engagement a long account
is given by Plutarch, probably taken almost verbatim from the commentaries of
Sulla. (Plut. Sull. 17, seq,) The narrative of Plutarch is illustrated by Col.
Leake with his usual accuracy and sagacity. Mount Thurium, called in the time
of Plutarch, Orthophagium, the summit of which was seized by Sulla, is supposed
by Leake to be the highest point of the hills behind Chaeroneia; and the torrent
Morius, below Mount Thurium, is probably the rivulet which joins the left bank
of the Cephissus, and which separates Mt. Hedylium from Mt. Acontium. Chaeroneia
continued to exist under the Roman empire, and is memorable at that period as
the birthplace of Plutarch, who spent the later years of his life in his native
town. In the time of Pausanias Chaeroneia was noted for the manufacture of perfumed
oils, extracted from flowers, which were used as a remedy against pain. (Paus.
ix. 41. § 6.)
Chaeroneia stood upon the site of the modern village of Kapurna. There
are not many remains of the ancient city upon the plain; but there are some ruins
of the citadel upon the projecting rock already described; and on the face of
this rock, fronting the plain, are traces of the ancient theatre. In the church
of the Panaghia, in the village, are several remains of ancient art, and inscriptions.
From the latter we learn that Serapis was worshipped in the town. Pausanias does
not mention the temple of this deity; but he states that the principal object
of veneration in his time was the sceptre of Zeus, once borne by Agamemnon, and
which was considered to be the undoubted work of the god Hephaestus. At the foot
of the theatre there rises a small torrent, which flows into the Cephissus. It
was called in ancient times Haemon or Thermodon, and its water was dyed by the
blood of the Thebans and Boeotians in their memorable defeat by Philip. (Plut.
Dem. 19)
This text is from: Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854) (ed. William Smith, LLD). Cited May 2004 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains interesting hyperlinks
In the territory of Chaeroneia are two trophies, which the Romans under Sulla set up to commemorate their victory over the army of Mithridates under Taxilus
As you approach the city you see a common grave of the Thebans who were killed in the struggle against Philip. It has no inscription, but is surmounted by a lion, probably a reference to the spirit of the men. That there is no inscription is, in my opinion, because their courage was not favoured by appropriate good fortune
There is beyond the city a crag called Petrachus. Here they hold that Cronus was deceived, and received from Rhea a stone instead of Zeus, and there is a small image of Zeus on the summit of the mountain
Plutarchus, (Ploutarchos). A Greek writer of biographies and
miscellaneous works, who was born at Chaeronea, in Boeotia, about A.D. 50. He
came of a distinguished and wealthy family, and enjoyed a careful education. His
philosophical training he received at Athens, especially in the school of the
Peripatetic Ammonius (of Lamptrae in Attica), who is identified with Ammonius
the Egyptian. After this he made several journeys, and stayed a considerable time
in Rome, where he gave public lectures on philosophy, was in friendly intercourse
with persons of distinction, and conducted the education of the future emperor
Hadrian. From Trajan he received consular rank, and by Hadrian he was in his old
age named procurator of Greece. He died about 120 in his native town, in which
he held the office of archon and of priest of the Pythian Apollo.
His fame as an author is founded principally upon his Parallel
Lives (Bioi Paralleloi). These he probably prepared in Rome under the reign of
Trajan, but completed and published late in life at Chaeronea. The biographies
are divided into connected pairs, each pair (which makes a biblion) placing a
Greek and a Roman in juxtaposition, and generally ending with a comparative view
of the two; of these we still possess forty-six: Theseus and Romulus; Lycurgus
and Numa; Solon and Valerius Publicola; Themistocles and Camillus; Pericles and
Fabius Maximus; Alcibiades and Coriolanus; Timoleon and Aemilius Paulus; Pelopidas
and Marcellus; Aristides and the elder Cato; Philopoemen and Flamininus; Pyrrhus
and Marius; Lysander and Sulla; Cimon and Lucullus; Nicias and Crassus; Eumenes
and Sertorius; Agesilaus and Pompeius; Alexander and Caesar; Phocion and the younger
Cato; Agis and Cleomenes and the two Gracchi; Demosthenes and Cicero; Demetrius
Poliorcetes and Antonius; Dion and Brutus. To these are added the four specially
elaborated lives of Artaxerxes Mnemon, Aratus, Galba, and Otho; a number of other
biographies are lost. The sequels which follow most of the lives give a sort of
balanced judgment (sunkrisis) of the two men compared.
Plutarch's object was not to write history, but out of more
or less important single traits to form distinct sketches of character. The sketches
show, indeed, a certain uniformity, inasmuch as Plutarch has a propensity to portray
the persons represented either as models of virtue in general, or as slaves of
some passion in particular; but the lives are throughout attractive, owing to
the liveliness and warmth of the portraiture, the moral earnestness with which
they are penetrated, and the enthusiasm which they display for everything noble
and great. For these reasons they have always had a wide circle of readers. More
than this, their historical value is not to be meanly estimated, in spite of the
lack of criticism in the use of the authorities and the manifold inaccuracies
and mistakes, which, in the Roman lives, were in part the result of a defective
knowledge of the Latin language. There are a large number of valuable pieces of
information in which they fill up numerous gaps in the historical narratives that
have been handed down to us. Besides this work eightythree writings of various
kinds (some of them only fragments and epitomes of larger treatises) are preserved
under the name of Plutarch. These are improperly classed together under the title
Moralia (ethical writings); for this designation is only applicable to a part
of them. The form of these works is as diverse as their tenor and scope: some
are treatises and reports of discourses; a large number is composed in the form
of Platonic or Aristotelian dialogues; others again are learned collections and
notices put together without any special plan of arrangement. A considerable portion
of them are of disputable authenticity or have been proved to be spurious. About
half are of philosophical and ethical tenor, and have for the most part a popular
and practical tendency, some of them being of great value for the history of philosophy,
such as the work on the opinions of the philosophers (De Placitis Philosophorum)
in five books. Others belong to the domain of religion and worship, such as the
works On Isis and Osiris, On the Oracles of the Pythian Priestess, and On the
Decay of the Oracles; others to that of the natural sciences, while others again
are treatises on history and antiquities, or on the history of literature, such
as the Greek and Roman Questions and the Lives of the Ten Orators. This last is
undoubtedly spurious. One of the most instructive and entertaining of all his
works is the Table-talk (Quaestiones Conviviales) in nine books, which deal inter
alia with a series of questions of history, archaeology, mythology, and physics.
But even with these works his literary productiveness was not exhausted; for,
besides these, twenty-four lost writings are known to us by their titles and by
fragments. In his language he aims at attaining the pure Attic style, without,
however, being able altogether to avoid the deviations from that standard which
were generally prevalent in his time.
This text is from: Harry Thurston Peck, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities. Cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains interesting hyperlinks
Plutarch of Chaeronea : influential Greek philosopher and author, well
known for his biographies and his moral treatises.
It is not overstated to say that, together with Augustine of Hippo
and Aristotle of Stagira,
Plutarch of Chaeronea is the most influential ancient philosopher. He may lack
the the profundity of Augustine, the most influential philosopher in the early
Middle Ages, and the acumen of Aristotle, considered the master of all intellectuals
of the late Middle Ages, but the Sage of Chaeronea is an excellent writer and
from the Renaissance to the present day, his moral treatises have found a larger
audience than any other ancient philosopher. In his own age, he was immensely
popular because he was able to explain philosophical discussions to non-philosophical
readers, Greek and Roman alike. The fact that he was priest in Delphi
will no doubt have improved his popularity.
Life
Plutarch was probably born in 46 in the Boeotian town Chaeronea. His
parents were wealthy people, and after 67, their son was able to study philosophy,
rhetorics, and mathematics at the platonic Academy of Athens.
However, Plutarch never became a platonic puritan, but always remained open to
influences from other philosophical schools, such as the Stoa and the school of
Aristotle. It is likely that the young man was present when the emperor Nero,
who visited Greece at this time, declared the Greek towns to be free and autonomous.
Because Plutarch was a rich man, he became one of the leading citizens
of Chaeronea and he is known to have represented his town on several occasions.
For example, he visited the governor of Achaea, and traveled to Alexandria and
Rome (several times). Again, this proves that he was a rich man.
Among his friends was Lucius Mestrius Florus, a consul during the
reign of Vespasian, and Plutarch's guide during his visit to Bedriacum, where
two important battles had been fought in 69, the year of the four emperors. Mestrius
also secured the Roman citizenship for Plutarch, whose official name now became
Mestrius Plutarchus. At the end of his life, he was honored with the procuratorship
of Achaea, an important office
that he probably held only in name. His involvement in the Roman world, although
from a carefully maintained distance, explains why he shows so much interest in
the history of Rome.
In the 90's, Plutarch, who had seen much of the world, settled in
his home town. When asked to explain his return to the province, he said that
Chaeronea was in decline and that it would be even smaller if he did not settle
there. For some time, he was mayor.
In his treatise Should Old Men Take Part in Politics?, Plutarch tells
us that he occupied an office in the holy city Delphi,
and he is known to have become one of the two permanent priests, responsible for
the interpretation of the inspired utterances of the Pythia, the prophetess of
Delphi. In these years, a library was built near the sanctuary, and it is tempting
to assume that Plutarch was behind this initiative.
In the two first decades of the second century, he studied and wrote
many books. According to an incomplete third-century catalogue, there were between
200 and 300 titles. These books brought him international fame, and the home of
the famous author became a private school for young philosophers. He was often
visited by Greeks and Romans, although not necessarily to study philosophy. The
emperor Trajan may have been one of the visitors (winter 113/114?), and it may
have been on this occasion that Trajan honored Plutarch with the ornaments of
a consul, an important award. From now on, Plutarch was allowed to wear a golden
ring and a white toga with a border made of purple.
Plutarch died after his procuratorship, which was in 119, and before
125. The year 122 is just guesswork. The Delphians and Chaeroneans ordered statues
to be erected for their famous citizen.
In the Consolation to his wife, Plutarch mentions four sons and we know
that at least two survived childhood. It has often been remarked that in his many
publications, Plutarch shows that he was devoted to his parents, grandfather,
brothers, his wife Timoxena, and to their children, but this is of course an impression
that every author wants to convey.
The Moralia
Plutarch's oeuvre can be divided into two parts: the biographies (below)
and the remainder, which is usually called the Moralia or Moral Writings. This
second group is a varied collection of literary criticism, declamations, ethical
essays, advice, polemics, political writing, conversation and consolation. Although
there is much variation among these treatises, it is clear that its author aimed
at the moral education of his readers (e.g. in works with titles like Checking
Anger, The Art of Listening, How to Know Whether One Progresses to Virtue).
Plutarch's central theme seems to have been his idea that there was
a dualistic opposition between the good an evil principles in the world. Later
philosophers of the neoplatonistic school disagreed with this idea, and this explains
why several of Plutarch's more serious philosophical publications are now lost.
What we have left, is generally lighter work, together with his attacks on the
Stoa and Epicurism.
They are interesting texts, because they show a very pragmatic philosopher,
whose aim it is to make people more virtuous and therefore happier. In fact, several
works have a striking resemblance to modern "do it yourself"-books of social psychology.
Treatises like the Advice to Bride and Groom may strike us as conservative and
anti-feminist, but in Antiquity, the advises may indeed have been helpful.
The biographies
Plutarch's biographies are in fact moral treatises too. He describes
the careers of a Greek and a Roman, and compares them. For example, in the Life
of Theseus/Life of Romulus, he describes the lives of the founders of Athens
and Rome, and in a brief
epilogue penetrates into their respective characters. Another example is the comparison
of Themistocles and Camillus, an Athenian and a Roman who were both sent into
exile. The result is not only an entertaining biography, but also a better understanding
of a morally exemplary person, which the reader can use for his own moral improvement.
A good example of Plutarch's method is his Life of Alexander/Life
of Julius Caesar, in which he gives a very short summary of his biographical ideal.
"It is not histories I am writing, but lives; and in the most glorious
deeds there is not always an indication of virtue of vice, indeed a small thing
like a phrase or a jest often makes a greater revelation of a character than battles
where thousands die."
[tr. E.L. Bowie]
This is a good description of what Plutarch has to offer. He will
not give an in-depth comparative analysis of the causes of the fall of the Achaemenid
empire and the Roman Republic, but offers anecdotes with a moral pointe. We should
read his Life of Alexander as a collection of short stories, in which virtues
and vices are shown. The most important theme (one might say: Plutarch's vision
on Alexander's significance in world history) is that he brought civilization
to the barbarians and made them human; Alexander is, so to speak, a practical
philosopher, who improves mankind in a rather unusual but effective way. This
theme is more explicitly worked out in a writing called The Fortune and Virtue
of Alexander.
Because Plutarch's moral judgment is more important than his historical
judgment, he sometimes makes odd errors (e.g., praising Pompey's trustworthy character
and tactful behavior), but he is not a bad historian. To return to Alexander:
most authors of books on the Macedonian king took their material from either the
so-called 'vulgate' tradition (which follows a biographer called Cleitarchus)
or from the 'good' tradition (which follows Ptolemy, one of Alexander's generals).
Plutarch, on the other hand, tells his own, moral story and takes elements from
both traditions.
If the reader of this article has the impression that Plutarch is
a boring moralist, he is mistaken. His sincere interest in his subjects as human
beings makes the Lives very readable and explains why they have found so many
readers - both ancient and modern. The ultimate compliment to Plutarch was paid
by a twelfth-century official of the Byzantine church, John Mauropos, who prayed
that on the Day of Judgment, when all non-Christians would be sent to hell, God
would save the soul of the Sage of Chaeronea.
Jona Lendering, ed.
This text is cited July 2003 from the Livius Ancient History Website URL below, which contains interesting hyperlinks.
The Website of the International Plutarch Society
The e-texts of the works by Plutarch are found in Greece (ancient country) under the category Ancient Greek Writings.
Plutarch, historian, around A.D. 46-120, born at Chaeronea, Boeotia,
in Greece during the Roman
Empire. Plutarch travelled widely in the Mediterranean world until he returned
to Boeotia, becoming a priest
at the temple of Apollo at Delphi.
His most important historical work is the Parallel Lives, in which
he arranges 46 biographies of leading Greeks and leading Romans in tandem to illuminate
their shared moral virtues or failings. This moralizing approach to history makes
it difficult to rely on Plutarch for certain kinds of details, though his dates
are not usually troublesome.
After having been trained in philosophy at Athens
he travelled and stayed some time at Rome,
where he lectured on philosophy and undertook the education of Hadrian. Trajan
bestowed consular rank upon him, and Hadrian appointed him procurator of Greece.
He died in his native town, where he was archon and priest of the Pythian Apollo.
In the Consolation to his Wife on the loss of his young daughter, he tells us
that they had brought up four sons besides, one of whom was called by the name
of Plutarch's brother, Lamprias. We learn incidentally from this treatise that
the writer had been initiated in the secret mysteries of Dionysus, which held
that the soul was imperishable.
He seems to have been an independent thinker rather than an adherent
of any particular school of philosophy. His vast acquaintance with the literature
of his time is everywhere apparent. The celebrity of Plutarch, or at least his
popularity, is mainly founded on his forty-six Parallel Lives. He is thought to
have written this work in his later years after his return to Chaeronea. His knowledge
of Latin and of Roman history he must have partly derived from some years' residence
in Rome, and parts of Italy,
though he says he was too much engaged in lecturing (doubtless in Greek, on philosophy)
to turn his attention much to Roman literature during that period.
Plutarch's design in writing the Parallel Lives appears to have been
the publication, in successive books, of authentic biographies in pairs, taking
together a Greek and a Roman. It may therefore fairly be inferred that Plutarch's
original idea was simply to set a Greek warrior, statesman, orator or legislator
side by side with some noted Roman celebrated for the same qualities, or working
under similar conditions. Nearly all the lives are in pairs. The Lives are works
of great learning and research, long lists of authorities are given, and they
must for this very reason, as well as from their considerable length, have taken
many years in compilation. It is true that many of the lives, especially of Romans,
do not show such an extent of research. But Plutarch must have had access to a
great store of books, and his diligence as an historian cannot be questioned,
if his accuracy is in some points impeached. From the historian's point of view
the weakness of the biographies is that their interest is primarily ethical. The
author's sympathy with Doric characters and institutions is very evident; he delights
to record the exploits, the maxims and virtues of Spartan kings and generals.
This feeling is the key to his apparently unfair and virulent attack on Herodotus,
who, as an Ionian, seemed to him to have exaggerated the prowess and the foresight
of the Athenian leaders.
The voluminous and varied writings of Plutarch exclusive of the Lives
are known under the common term Opera moralia. These consist of above sixty essays,
some of them long and many of them rather difficult, some too of very doubtful
genuineness. Their literary value is greatly enhanced by the large number of citations
from lost Greek poems, especially verses of the dramatists, among whom Euripides
holds by far the first place.
This extract is cited July 2003 from the Malaspina Great Books URL below, which contains image.
A. Gabinius, fought at Chaeroneia in the army of Sulla as military tribune, and in the beginning of B. C. 81, was despatched by Sulla to Asia with instructions to Murena to end the war with Mithridates. He was a moderate and honourable man. (Plut. Sull. 16, 17; Appian, Mithr. 66; Cic. pro Leg. Manil. 3.)
L. Hortensius, legate of Sulla in the first Mithridatic war. He distinguished himself at Chaeroneia in the year B. C. 86 (Memnon, Fr. 32, 34, Orelli; Plut. Sull. 15, 17, 19; Dion Cass. Fr. 125.)
Diogenes, a son of Archelaus, the general of Mithridates, who fell in the battle of Chaeroneia, which his father lost against Sulla. (Appian, Mithrid. 49.)
Receive our daily Newsletter with all the latest updates on the Greek Travel industry.
Subscribe now!
