Listed 5 sub titles with search on: Archaeological sites for destination: "PERGAMOS Ancient city TURKEY".
The project is under the auspices of the Istanbul Section of the Deutsches Archaologisches Institut.
Region: Mysia
Periods: Hellenistic, Roman
Type: Fortified city
Summary: Capital city of the hellenistic kingdom of Pergamon.
Physical Description:
The oldest section of Pergamon, the acropolis or upper
city, sits on an impressive steep ridge between two tributaries of the Caicus
river. The ridge is naturally fortified on all but the S side which slopes down
to the Caicus valley floor. The Caicus valley provides access from Pergamon to
the Aegean coast and the port town of Elaea in the W and the Persian Royal Road
to the E. The upper city, which was fortified in the 4th or 3rd century B.C. contains
the 3rd century Sanctuary of Athena, the oldest cult center of the city as well
as palace quarters, barracks, and arsenals. In the 2nd century B.C. the 10,000
seat theater, the library adjacent to the Sanctuary of Athena, and the Great Altar
of Zeus and Athena were added. In the 2nd century A.D. the monumental Trajaneum
was erected on what must have been an earlier unknown cult center. From the upper
agora a paved main street leads S and downslope to the middle city. The city of
Pergamon began to extend down the S slope in the 3rd century B.C. and during the
2nd century a massive building program completely transformed the entire lower
slope. The major construction in the area was the gigantic gymnasium complex which
extended down three large terraces linked by vaulted stairways and passages. The
complex encorporated three open training courts, a covered track or xystus, a
small theater or odeum, several shrines, and two large baths. Other major sections
of the middle city included the Sanctuary of Demeter and Kore and, below the gymnasium
along the main street leading to the Eumenes' Gate, the lower agora. North and
E of the gymnasium massive terraces support the streets and houses of the residential
quarter. In the first half of the 2nd century B.C. Eumenes II strengthened the
entire fortification system of Pergamon and enclosed all of the middle city, which
extended almost to the base of the south slope, within the new walls. During the
Roman Imperial period the city continued to expand southward and spread over the
plain and the area occuppied by modern Bergama. The large Sanctuary of the Egyptian
Gods (the "Kizil Avlu"), numerous bridges, and remains of the Roman stadium, theater,
and amphitheater remain visible today.
Description:
The earliest material from Pergamon indicates that the
site was settled as early as the 8th century B.C. Because of its distance from
the sea, however, Pergamon was probably not a Greek settlement and little is known
about the earlier centuries. The city is first mentioned in history in 399 B.C.
and at that time it was in the hands of a local Greek tyrant. Pergamon emerged
as a power during the struggle for territorial control following the death of
Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. By the middle of the 3rd century Pergamon had
been established as an independent state under the leadership of the Attalid dynasty.
The power of the Attalids and the city grew as a result of successful battles
against the Gauls of central Anatolia and careful political alliances with Rome.
The peak period of Pergamene power and achievement was reached during the reign
of Eumenes II (197-159 B.C.). The kingdom had grown to include most of western
Anatolia and was rich in agriculture and industry. Noted industrial exports included
textiles, fine pottery, and "Pergamene paper" or parchment. The last industry
developed when Ptolemy, reportedly jealous of the growing fame of the library
in Pergamon, prohibited the export of papyrus from Egypt. Eumenes II enlarged
the city of Pergamon to include all of the southern slope and enclosed the city
with a new and stronger fortification wall. In addition to the major new constructions
in the lower city Eumenes also commissioned the Great Altar of Zeus and Athena,
the theater, and the new library in the upper city. In the 2nd century B.C. Pergamon
rivalled Athens and Alexandria as centers of Hellenic culture. The city possessed
one of the greatest libraries of antiquity, monumental gymnasia, and numerous
religious sanctuaries, including the Asklepion outside the city walls. Pergamon
was a haven for noted philosophers and artists and was the center of a major movement
in Hellenistic sculpture. The Attalids supported the arts and learning in Pergamon
and elsewhere and made major donations, such as the Stoa of Attalos II in Athens.
The last Attalid ruler, Attalos III, bequeathed the kingdom of Pergamon to Rome
in 133 B.C. During Roman rule the prosperity of Pergamon continued and the city
had a period of commercial expansion. The city itself expanded to the plain S
and W of the acropolis across the flat land now occuppied by modern Bergama. After
a slight decline in the 1st century A.D. Pergamon went through a second period
of greatness in the 2nd century A.D. New monumental structures were completed,
including the large (ca. 300 x 100 m) sanctuary to the Egyptian gods in the center
of the Roman city. The Sanctuary of Asklepios grew in fame and was considered
one of the most famous therapeutic and healing center of the Roman world. Galen,
after Hippocrates the most famous physician of antiquity, was born at Pergamon
and received his early training at the Asklepion. By the end of the 2nd century
A.D. Pergamon had become an important Christian center and the monumental Temple
of Serapis in the sanctuary to the Egyptian gods was converted to a church. Economical
decline, however, followed the weakening of the Pax Romana and Pergamon lost much
of its importance. In A.D. 716 the city was sacked by the Arabs and as a minor
provincial center changed hands several times in the Medieval period.
Exploration:
Excavations by the German Archaeological Institute have been
conducted almost continuously since 1878. During the earliest work at the end
of the last century major art works, including the entire Altar of Zeus and Athena,
were carried off to Berlin.
Donald R. Keller, ed.
This text is cited Oct 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 272 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Region: Mysia
Periods: Hellenistic, Roman
Type: Sanctuary
Summary: A major healing sanctuary, second only to Epidauros itself.
Physical Description:
When the Asklepieion was first established at the beginning
of the 4th century B.C. the city of Pergamon was located ca. 3 km to the NE. By
the time the sanctuary had reached its peak in fame and monumental appearance
in the 2nd century A.D. the city of Pergamon had expanded until its SW edge was
ca. 500 m from the sanctuary. A colonnaded and paved sacred way, the Via Tecta,
linked the city to the sanctuary. The sacred way reached the center of the E side
of the temenos at a forecourt and monumental propylon. Along the eastern side
of the sanctuary the library is N of the propylon and the circular temple of Zeus
Asklepios (diameter 23.85 m) and the two-story rotunda treatment center (diameter
26.5 m) are aligned S of it. The two-story circular treatment center at the SE
corner of the rectangular temenos is counterbalanced by the theater at the NW
corner. The other three sides of the large central court (110 x 130 m) of the
sanctuary consists of stoas or colonnaded walkways. A complex of luxurious public
latrines at the SW corner of the temenos counterbalanced the library at the NE
corner. At the center of the W stoa there was an access to the adjoining gymnasium.
A vaulted subterranian passage led from the large treatment center at the SE to
the center of the temenos, where the sacred spring formed the nucleus of the sanctuary.
The central plaza-like area of the sanctuary also contained other fountains, mud
baths, and small temples and altars. It was at the nucleus of the temenos, in
the area of the sacred spring, that the earlier unknown cult center was located
and the original Hellenistic Asklepieion developed.
Description:
At ca. 400 B.C. the Pergamene Asklepieion was established
at the existing religious sanctuary of an unknown deity located at a spring ca.
3 km SW of the city. The early Asklepieion consisted of a number of temples, including
the first temple of Asklepios Soter, an early treatment building, fountain house,
and several altars. In the late Hellenistic period the sanctuary expanded to the
S and took the form of a large rectangular court surrounded by stoas, temples,
and an enlarged treatment building. A gymnasium and stoa was also constructed
to the W of the main complex. The fame and prestige of the Asklepieion grew rapidly
during the Roman period and reached a peak in the 2nd century A.D. when the sanctuary
gained the monumental appearance that is reflected in the remains visible today.
In addition to the monumental building program of the 2nd century A.D. and the
fame of the sanctuary as a spa and healing center, which was second only to the
original Asklepieion at Epidauros, the Pergamene Asklepieion was also renouned
as the school of Galen, the most famous physician of the Roman period. Even after
the introduction of Christianity at Pergamon, the Asklepieion continued to exist
as a medical and healing center.
Donald R. Keller, ed.
This text is cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
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