Listed 18 sub titles with search on: Archaeological sites for wider area of: "MUGLA Province TURKEY" .
Labradeus. A surname of Zeus at Labranda near Mylassa in Caria. The name was derived, according to Plutarch, from labrus, the Lydian term for a hatchet, which the statue of Zeus held in its hand, and which had been offered up by Arselis of Mylassa from the spoils of Candaules, king of Lydia
ALIKARNASSOS (Ancient city) TURKEY
A splendid sepulchre at Halicarnassus, built in honour of King
Mausolus of Caria, who died B.C. 353, by his wife Artemisia, and reckoned by the
ancients one of the seven wonders of the world. It consisted of an oblong substructure
surrounded by thirty-six columns, with a circuit of 440 feet, crowned by a pyramid
diminishing by twenty-four steps to its summit, on which stood a marble quadriga,
the work of Pythis. The height of the whole building, gorgeous with the most varied
colours, was 140 feet. Satyrus and Pythius were the architects, and the sculptures
on the four sides were executed by Scopas, Bryaxis, Timotheus, and Leochares.
In the twelfth century after Christ the work was still in a good state of preservation;
in succeeding centuries it fell to pieces more and more, until the Knights of
St. John used it as a quarry from the time when they built their castle on the
site of the old Greek acropolis in 1402, down to the repair of their fortifications
in 1522, when they made lime of its marble sculptures. In 1845, a number of reliefs
were extracted from the walls of the castle and placed in the British Museum.
In 1857 the site was discovered by Newton, acting under a commission from the
English government, and the sculptures thus unearthed, including the statue of
Mausolus and important fragments of the marble quadriga, were removed to the British
Museum.
The Romans gave the name of Mausoleum to all sepulchres which
approached that of Mausolus in size and grandeur of execution, as, for instance,
(1) that erected by Augustus for himself and his family, the magnificence of which
is attested by the still extant walls inclosing it, on the Via de' Pontefici in
Rome; and (2) the sepulchre of Hadrian, which is in part preserved in the Castle
of S. Angelo, a circular building of 220 feet in diameter and 72 feet high, resting
on a square base, the sides of which are almost 100 yards long. It was originally
covered with Parian marble, and profusely ornamented with colonnades and statues,
and probably had a pyramid on the top.
This text is from: Harry Thurston Peck, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities. Cited Oct 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains interesting hyperlinks
ALIKARNASSOS (Ancient city) TURKEY
Site: Halikarnassos
Type: Mausoleum
Summary: Monumental tomb structure with interior tomb chamber, tall
podium, peristyle, and pyramidal roof.
Date: ca. 355 B.C. - 340 B.C.
Period: Late Classical
Plan:
The Maussolleion was rectangular in ground plan, and was designed to be situated
in a walled temenos enclosure entered through a propylon in the east wall. Recent
reconstructions of the tomb show a two- or three-stepped podium supporting a pteron
of nine by eleven columns. The roof of the Maussolleion consisted of a pyramid
of twenty-four steps, surmounted by a statue base supporting the crowning element
of quadriga and statuary. The building was decorated with much free-standing and
relief sculpture, carried out by Skopas, Bryaxis, Leochares and Timotheos, and
was known as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
History:
The Maussolleion was the burial location of the Carian dynast Mausolus, who died
in 353/2 B.C. Literary sources attribute the construction of the tomb to Mausolus'
wife and sister Artemisia (Strabo 14.2.16; Pliny, NH 36.30). Since, however, Artemisia
ruled for only two years after Mausolus' death and was dead herself by 351/0 B.C.,
this does not allow enough time for such a monumental undertaking, and suggests
that the Maussolleion was begun during Mausolus' lifetime. The tomb also fits
comfortably into the city plan of Halikarnassos, which may have been reshaped
by Mausolus in the mid-fourth century B.C. The tomb was still incomplete when
Artemisia died, and it is unclear who was responsible for completing it, although
it is generally accepted that Mausolus' brother Idreus and Idreus' sister/wife
Ada may have continued work on the Maussolleion after Artemisia's death. Some
scholars believe that the Maussolleion, like the surrounding temenos wall and
its propylon, was never finished; others have suggested that Alexander the Great
contributed to the construction of the monument, although this seems unlikely
given the nature of the structure and Alexander's animosity towards the citizens
of Halikarnassos for their failure to support him. It is generally considered
that construction of the tomb came to a standstill in ca. 340 B.C. The Maussolleion
remained undamaged at least until the 12th c. A.D. By the early 15th c., however,
it had been substantially destroyed, perhaps by an earthquake, and the Knights
of St. John removed much of the building stones to construct the Castle of St.
Peter nearby. In the sixteenth century, a burial chamber was discovered by the
Knights as they sought additional building material. The site was excavated in
1857 by Charles Newton, who removed much of the sculpture to the British Museum.
Excavation resumed under Danish direction in 1966.
Other Notes:
The sculptural display of the Maussolleion is restored as follows (in broad outline):
on the lower parapet or step of the podium stood life-size groups and single figures
representing fighting warriors on horseback and on foot; on the upper parapet
of the podium were represented hunting scenes and a sacrificial procession. Crowning
the podium was a marble relief frieze representing an Amazonomachy. In the intercolumniations
of the cella were free-standing sculptures; a relief depicting a Centauromachy
may have been placed at the top of the cella wall. Above the sima of the cella,
on the lowest step of the pyramidal roof, were lions in confronting rows. The
crowning element of the structure was a statue group consisting of a quadriga
containing colossal figures of either Mausolus (in the guise of Helios?) and Artemisia,
or representing ancestors of the dynast (for the interpretation, see Waywell 1978,
40-43). Architecturally, the Maussolleion displays affinities to Egyptian pyramids,
not only in the form of its roof with definite apex, but also in its monumental
scale; Egypt and Caria had long-standing connections. The tomb of the Persian
ruler Cyrus the Great, at Pasargadae, a rectangular gabled tomb on a tall stepped
substructure, is also cited as a possible influence on the Maussolleion. Close
to home, the Nereid Monument at Xanthos (Lycia) and the Heroon of Perikles at
Limyra (Lycia) may also have provided inspiration. The incorporation, however,
of elements commonly found in Greek temple architecture, for example the Ionic
pillars and relief friezes, suggests that the Greek sculptors and craftsmen who
worked on the Maussolleion were trained in the area of religious architecture,
and that precedents for such a monumental tomb structure were few.
Sarah Cormack, ed.
This text is cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 1 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Region: Caria
Periods: Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine
Type: Fortified city and port
Summary: Capital of the Carian king and satrap Mausolus.
Physical Description:
In the 4th century B.C. Halikarnassos was a well fortified
large city arranged in ampitheater form around its natural harbor. The city was
laid out on a grid with major streets leading N from the harbor to the heights
of the acropolis. The harbor was enclosed by moles and a canal led to a second,
secret harbor which is believed to have been to the E of the main harbor. The
palace of Mausolus was located on the peninsula to the E of the harbor and the
Mausoleum was at the center of the city, N of the agora and the harbor. Additional
graves of the Hellenistic and Roman period are located within the city walls on
the S slope of the acropolis, beyond the theater.
Description:
According to tradition, Dorian colonists from Troezen settled
at Halikarnassos early in the Iron Age. They apparently occupied the territory
peacefully and intermarried with the local Carian population. Halikarnassos was
one of the three mainland cities of the Dorian Hexapolis. By the 5th century B.C.,
however, it had come under the cultural influence of Ionia to the N and no longer
belonged to the Dorian Hexapolis. The city was a composit of Carian and Ionian
elements and the earliest inscriptions from the city show no remaining traces
of a Dorian dialect. After the Persian conquest in the 6th century B.C., Halikarnassos
was ruled by a Carian dynasty centered at Mylasa. In 480 B.C. queen Artemisia
I, of Carian and Greek descent, personally led her forces on the side of the Persians
at the battle of Salamis and was one of Xerxes' most trusted advisors. Halikarnassos
became a member of the Delian League as a result of the Persian defeat. It again
came under Persian control after the King's Peace of 386 B.C. Mausolus became
satrap and king of Caria in 377 B.C. and was one of the most notable of the Carian
rulers. He moved the capital of Caria from Mylasa to Halikarnassos on the N shore
of the gulf of Kos, extended and strengthened the borders of Carian territory
and began a program to Hellenize his subjects. Halikarnassos itself was enclosed
by over 5 km of fortification walls and the population greatly enlarged by the
forced depopulation of other towns on the Myndos peninsula. The monumental building
program of Mausolus included a marble palace on the east side of the harbor and
the erection of his tomb in the center of the city. After the death of Mausolus
in 353 B.C., his wife-sister, Artemisia II, completed the tomb and defeated the
city of Rhodes. Halikarnassos was one of the few Anatolian cities to resist the
advance of Alexander the Great. In 334 B.C. Alexander sacked the city and appointed
Ada, an exiled member of the ruling Carian dynasty as the new queen. During the
Hellenistic period Caria was ruled in turn by the Ptolemies, the Seleucids, the
Macedonians, and the Rhodians. Under Roman rule the city was independent, but
not exceptionally prosperous. The city suffered under Verres in 80 B.C. and again
under Brutus and Cassius ca. 40 B.C. During the peace of the Roman Empire Halikarnassos
again prospered and it remained an important port into the medieval period. Halikarnassos
is most noted for the tomb of Mausolus The Mausoleum was enhanced by the leading
Greek sculptors of the century and was considered one of the seven wonders of
the ancient world. Halikarnassos was also the birthplace of Herodotus, the "father
of history" and the historian Dionysius.
Exploration:
The Mausoluem remained intact until the medieval period
when, perhaps following an earthquake, the stones of the structure were reused
in the construction of the castle of the Knights of St. John in the 15th century
A.D. The location of the tomb was rediscovered and investigated by Sir Charles
Newton in 1856. Modern excavations at the Mausoleum began in 1966 by a Danish
archaeological mission.
Donald R. Keller, ed.
This text is cited Oct 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 26 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
EVROMOS (Ancient city) TURKEY
Region: Caria
Periods: Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic, Roman
Type: Fortified city
Summary: A minor city with one of the best preserved temples in
Anatolia.
Physical Description:
Located ca. 20 km SE of Lake Bafa and ca. 12 km N of ancient
Mylasa, Euromos stood on flat ground, encircled by a wall of Classical to Hellenistic
date. The city had a theater and a rectangular agora with colonnaded stoas on
each side. Just outside the city walls, to the S is the sanctuary and temple of
Zeus, one of the best preserved temples in Turkey. The present temple, which is
at least the 3rd built on that location is in the Corinthian style and dates to
the 2nd century A.D., but it was never completed. The temenos itself dates back
to as early as the 6th century B.C.
Description:
A Carian city, originally known as Kyromos or Hyromos,
it acquired the Hellenic name Euromos in the 4th century B.C. In its earlier history
the city was independent and was of some size and importance, but it was overshadowed
by the nearby city of Mylasa. Euromos was a member of the Delian League in the
mid 5th century B.C. and seems to have remained independent until ca. 167 B.C.
when Mylasa revolted from Rhodian control and asserted power over Euromos territory.
Euromos then formed alliances with Rome, Rhodes, and Iasos and prospered during
the Hellenistic and Roman periods.
Exploration:
Small scale excavations began in 1969 and are continuing.
Donald R. Keller, ed.
This text is cited Oct 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 22 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
IASSOS (Ancient city) TURKEY
Region: Caria
Periods: Geometric, Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine
Type: Fortified city
Summary: One of the southernmost Greek cities of Anatolia, famed
in antiquity for its harbors and commercial fishing.
Physical Description:
Iasos occupies a S projecting headland of ca. 800 x 200
m on the gulf of Mendelia, NE of the Halikarnassos peninsula. From the highest
point, near the center of the headland, the land slopes away to the flat isthmus
joining the mainland. The necropolis and a Roman aqueduct are located on the low
land N and E of the isthmus. E of the headland is a small harbor and W is a smaller
and well-protected harbor. The W harbor had a mole and could be closed by a chain.
The high land W of the harbor was protected by a 3 km long fortification wall
with numerous towers and sally ports. This land wall, which was never completed,
enclosed a large plateau and may have been built shortly before 412 B.C. by the
Iasos ruler Amorges as a garrison or refuge center. A 2nd fortification wall encircled
the city of Iasos on the headland E of the harbor. The city's fortifications may
also date to the 5th century B.C., but were extensively rebuilt in later periods.
The main gate of the city, located at the isthmus and head of the harbor, opened
directly onto the agora, just inside the city walls. Excavations have found earlier
9th and 8th century graves beneath the agora, indicating that the earlier city
had been smaller. The civic center of Iasos, including the bouleuterion, gymnasium,
and theater lie in the N quarter of the city, between the agora at the N and the
acropolis near the center of the headland. Streets and private houses are found
S and E of the acropolis. A sanctuary of Demeter and Kore and a S city gate are
at the S tip of the headland and a sanctuary of Artemis is located in the N corner
of the city, near the agora. The remains on the acropolis have been greatly disturbed
by the construction of a fortress by the Knights of Rhodes in the Middle Ages.
Description:
According to tradition, Iasos was colonized, possibly in
the 9th or 8th century B.C., by Dorian Greeks from Argos with the support of the
nearby Ionian city of Miletus. Archaeological evidence, however, shows that the
site was already occupied in the Early Bronze Age. Minoan and Mycenaean remains
indicate continued occupation in later periods. Iasos probably supported the Ionian
cities against the Persians, and in the 5th century B.C. it was a member of the
Delian League. As an ally of Athens, Iasos was attacked by Sparta and Persia in
412 B.C. and sacked. There is some evidence that Iasos was again attacked by Sparta
in 404 B.C. and that all the inhabitants were slaughtered or sold into slavery.
After Spartian power in the Aegean was destroyed by Conon in 394 B.C., Iasos was
rebuilt, possibly with the aid of Knidos, and it joined a league of Aegean states
that included Ephesos, Rhodes, Samos, and Byzantium. Following the Peace of Antalkides
in 386 B.C., Iasos came under the control of Mausolos and the satrapy of Caria.
Iasos was later liberated by Alexander the Great, but in 125 B.C. it, along with
all of Caria, became part of the Roman province of Asia. Prosperity continued
throughout the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods and many of the remains
visible today date from the later periods.
Exploration:
Chandler visited the site in 1764. Italian excavations
under direction of Doro Levi since 1960.
Donald R. Keller, ed.
This text is cited Oct 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 52 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
LAVRANDA (Ancient sanctuary) TURKEY
Region: Caria
Periods: Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine
Type: Sanctuary
Summary: A major religious sanctuary and refuge in the Carian territory
of Mylasa.
Physical Description:
The site occupies a series of artificial terraces 600 meters
above sea level on the S slope of a mountain overlooking the plain of Milas. It
is linked by a 7.5 m wide, paved Sacred Way to the city of Mylasa (modern Milas),
13 km to the S. The artificial terraces at Labraunda, connected by ramps and stairways,
extend from the propylaeae and courtyard at the SE corner of the site to just
below the summit of the mountain. The building remains (dating chiefly to the
5th century B.C. and 1st century A.D.) include the temple of Zeus, 3 androns or
male club buildings, 2 stoas, 2 Roman baths, several priests' residences, a nymphaium
or well-house, and possibly a treasury. Remains to the SE may be the fountain
and pool for bejeweled, tame fish reportedly maintained at the sanctuary, possibly
in connection with an oracle. Above the main sanctuary are the remains of a stadium,
and a fortified refuge occupies the summit. Around the area of the sanctuary and
along the 13 km long Sacred Way are many tombs and sepulchral monuments.
Description:
Labraunda was a major sanctuary of the Carians, dedicated
to Zeus Stratius or Zeus Labraundos. The original site of the 7th century B.C.
may have been simply a sacred grove of plane trees. In the 5th century B.C. the
Hecatomnids, Mausolus followed by his brother Idrieus, adopted the cult and brought
about a great embellishment of the sanctuary, including the erection of the 1st
temple of Zeus, the Propylaeae and other major buildings. Although the sanctuary
was in the territory of Mausolus' capital city of Mylasa, it enjoyed a measure
of independence and its priests were responsible for the administration of the
temple lands. After the Hectomnid transformation of the sanctuary, which may have
included the addition of a royal summer residence on the site and the fortified
refuge above the sacred precinct, there was almost no change to the sanctuary
until the 1st century A.D. when a number of buildings, including the W stoa, the
well-house and 2 baths, were added. In the 4th century A.D. much of the W part
of the sanctuary was destroyed by fire, but the site continued to be occupied
and an early Byzantine church was built of reused material at the E end of the
site. The church was destroyed by fire in the 11th century A.D.
Exploration:
Swedish excavations since 1948. Director Axel Persson of
Uppsala University.
Donald R. Keller, ed.
This text is cited Oct 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 48 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
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