Listed 100 (total found 125) sub titles with search on: Archaeological sites for wider area of: "TURKEY Country EUROPE" .
DIDYMA (Ancient sanctuary) TURKEY
Labradeus. A surname of Zeus at Labranda near Mylassa in Caria. The name was derived, according to Plutarch, from labrus, the Lydian term for a hatchet, which the statue of Zeus held in its hand, and which had been offered up by Arselis of Mylassa from the spoils of Candaules, king of Lydia
ANGYRA (Ancient city) TURKEY
The monument at Ancyra (now Angora), a marble wall, of which
the greater part is preserved. It belonged to the temple of Augustus at Ancyra,
and contained the Latin text of a Greek translation of the report drawn up by
that emperor himself on the actions of his reign (index rerum a se gestarum).
By the terms of his will this report, engraved in bronze, was set up in front
of his mausoleum at Rome, and copies were made of it for other temples of Augustus
in the provinces.
This text is from: Harry Thurston Peck, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities. Cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains interesting hyperlinks
AFRODISIAS (Ancient city) AYDIN
The Greek Theater in Aphrodisias, large enough to seat an audience of 10,000.
ALIKARNASSOS (Ancient city) TURKEY
A splendid sepulchre at Halicarnassus, built in honour of King
Mausolus of Caria, who died B.C. 353, by his wife Artemisia, and reckoned by the
ancients one of the seven wonders of the world. It consisted of an oblong substructure
surrounded by thirty-six columns, with a circuit of 440 feet, crowned by a pyramid
diminishing by twenty-four steps to its summit, on which stood a marble quadriga,
the work of Pythis. The height of the whole building, gorgeous with the most varied
colours, was 140 feet. Satyrus and Pythius were the architects, and the sculptures
on the four sides were executed by Scopas, Bryaxis, Timotheus, and Leochares.
In the twelfth century after Christ the work was still in a good state of preservation;
in succeeding centuries it fell to pieces more and more, until the Knights of
St. John used it as a quarry from the time when they built their castle on the
site of the old Greek acropolis in 1402, down to the repair of their fortifications
in 1522, when they made lime of its marble sculptures. In 1845, a number of reliefs
were extracted from the walls of the castle and placed in the British Museum.
In 1857 the site was discovered by Newton, acting under a commission from the
English government, and the sculptures thus unearthed, including the statue of
Mausolus and important fragments of the marble quadriga, were removed to the British
Museum.
The Romans gave the name of Mausoleum to all sepulchres which
approached that of Mausolus in size and grandeur of execution, as, for instance,
(1) that erected by Augustus for himself and his family, the magnificence of which
is attested by the still extant walls inclosing it, on the Via de' Pontefici in
Rome; and (2) the sepulchre of Hadrian, which is in part preserved in the Castle
of S. Angelo, a circular building of 220 feet in diameter and 72 feet high, resting
on a square base, the sides of which are almost 100 yards long. It was originally
covered with Parian marble, and profusely ornamented with colonnades and statues,
and probably had a pyramid on the top.
This text is from: Harry Thurston Peck, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities. Cited Oct 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains interesting hyperlinks
MITROPOLIS (Ancient city) TURKEY
ASSOS (Ancient city) TURKEY
Square structure at the northeastern corner of the Agora. According to its architectural morphology and typology, the building was probably erected during the first half of the 2nd century BC, when the city of Assos belonged to the kingdom of Pergamos.
The architecture followed the standards of the classical period. The main facade, facing the Agora, consisted of five pillars between ante. The main hall was a plain square room with wooden seats along the three walls. Four massive ionic colunms, also arranged in a square, supported the roof.
The Bouleuterion at Assos, along with those at Miletus, Athens, and Heracleia belongs to an innovative group of buildings with wide inner space covered by roofs resting on a reduced number of columns. Τhe foundation, the northern column of the facade, the bases of the inner columns and part of the superstructure are still preserved on the site today.
EFESSOS (Ancient city) TURKEY
Tel: +43 1 4277271-01
Fax: +43 1 4277 9271
GORDION (Ancient city) TURKEY
Fifty years ago, the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology (UPM) began excavations at the ancient Phrygian capital of Gordion in central Turkey. Within six years, the expedition had made one of the most spectacular archaeological discoveries of the 20th century. In the largest burial mound at the site, they located what has since been identified as the tomb of Gordion's most famous son, King Midas.
LIMYRA (Ancient city) TURKEY
Tel: +43 1 4277271-01
Fax: +43 1 4277 9271
EGES (Ancient city) TURKEY
Square building, at the north of the Agora, dating back to the 1st
century BC. The entrance was on the south side, and the remains of the building
suggest U-shaped rows of stone seats along the walls. Identification of the building
as a bouleuterion is based on an inscription on an architrave, typically stating
"Antifanis Apollonida Dii Bollaio kai Istia ollaio kai to damo", meaning that
Antifanes, son of Apollonides, (dedicates) the building to Zeus Boulaios (patron
of town-councils) and to Hestia Boulaia (patroness of the communal hearth) and
to the Dimos (the assembly of the citizens). The main proof is the dedication
to Hestia, whose cult, concerning public buildings, was mainly associated to the
bouleuterion or the prytaneion, holding within the symbolic communal hearth
This text is cited June 2004 from the Foundation of the Hellenic World URL below.
HERAKLIA ON LATMOS (Ancient city) TURKEY
Das Projekt wird von der Zentrale des Deutschen Archaologischen Instituts betreut
ALIKARNASSOS (Ancient city) TURKEY
Site: Halikarnassos
Type: Mausoleum
Summary: Monumental tomb structure with interior tomb chamber, tall
podium, peristyle, and pyramidal roof.
Date: ca. 355 B.C. - 340 B.C.
Period: Late Classical
Plan:
The Maussolleion was rectangular in ground plan, and was designed to be situated
in a walled temenos enclosure entered through a propylon in the east wall. Recent
reconstructions of the tomb show a two- or three-stepped podium supporting a pteron
of nine by eleven columns. The roof of the Maussolleion consisted of a pyramid
of twenty-four steps, surmounted by a statue base supporting the crowning element
of quadriga and statuary. The building was decorated with much free-standing and
relief sculpture, carried out by Skopas, Bryaxis, Leochares and Timotheos, and
was known as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
History:
The Maussolleion was the burial location of the Carian dynast Mausolus, who died
in 353/2 B.C. Literary sources attribute the construction of the tomb to Mausolus'
wife and sister Artemisia (Strabo 14.2.16; Pliny, NH 36.30). Since, however, Artemisia
ruled for only two years after Mausolus' death and was dead herself by 351/0 B.C.,
this does not allow enough time for such a monumental undertaking, and suggests
that the Maussolleion was begun during Mausolus' lifetime. The tomb also fits
comfortably into the city plan of Halikarnassos, which may have been reshaped
by Mausolus in the mid-fourth century B.C. The tomb was still incomplete when
Artemisia died, and it is unclear who was responsible for completing it, although
it is generally accepted that Mausolus' brother Idreus and Idreus' sister/wife
Ada may have continued work on the Maussolleion after Artemisia's death. Some
scholars believe that the Maussolleion, like the surrounding temenos wall and
its propylon, was never finished; others have suggested that Alexander the Great
contributed to the construction of the monument, although this seems unlikely
given the nature of the structure and Alexander's animosity towards the citizens
of Halikarnassos for their failure to support him. It is generally considered
that construction of the tomb came to a standstill in ca. 340 B.C. The Maussolleion
remained undamaged at least until the 12th c. A.D. By the early 15th c., however,
it had been substantially destroyed, perhaps by an earthquake, and the Knights
of St. John removed much of the building stones to construct the Castle of St.
Peter nearby. In the sixteenth century, a burial chamber was discovered by the
Knights as they sought additional building material. The site was excavated in
1857 by Charles Newton, who removed much of the sculpture to the British Museum.
Excavation resumed under Danish direction in 1966.
Other Notes:
The sculptural display of the Maussolleion is restored as follows (in broad outline):
on the lower parapet or step of the podium stood life-size groups and single figures
representing fighting warriors on horseback and on foot; on the upper parapet
of the podium were represented hunting scenes and a sacrificial procession. Crowning
the podium was a marble relief frieze representing an Amazonomachy. In the intercolumniations
of the cella were free-standing sculptures; a relief depicting a Centauromachy
may have been placed at the top of the cella wall. Above the sima of the cella,
on the lowest step of the pyramidal roof, were lions in confronting rows. The
crowning element of the structure was a statue group consisting of a quadriga
containing colossal figures of either Mausolus (in the guise of Helios?) and Artemisia,
or representing ancestors of the dynast (for the interpretation, see Waywell 1978,
40-43). Architecturally, the Maussolleion displays affinities to Egyptian pyramids,
not only in the form of its roof with definite apex, but also in its monumental
scale; Egypt and Caria had long-standing connections. The tomb of the Persian
ruler Cyrus the Great, at Pasargadae, a rectangular gabled tomb on a tall stepped
substructure, is also cited as a possible influence on the Maussolleion. Close
to home, the Nereid Monument at Xanthos (Lycia) and the Heroon of Perikles at
Limyra (Lycia) may also have provided inspiration. The incorporation, however,
of elements commonly found in Greek temple architecture, for example the Ionic
pillars and relief friezes, suggests that the Greek sculptors and craftsmen who
worked on the Maussolleion were trained in the area of religious architecture,
and that precedents for such a monumental tomb structure were few.
Sarah Cormack, ed.
This text is cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 1 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
ASSOS (Ancient city) TURKEY
Site: Assos
Type: Bouleuterion
Summary: Doric council house; located at the east end of the agora.
Date: ca. 300 B.C. - 100 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
Square building with front wall opening west, 5 columns in antis and 4 inner
columns arranged in a square.
History:
Dated 3rd century B.C. to 2nd century B.C.
This text is cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 4 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Assos
Type: Fortification
Summary: Well-preserved Hellenistic system of walls and towers
Date: Unknown
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
The fortifications of Assos enclosed an area of some 55 ha., including the
acropolis and the harbor of the city. Two major gateways and seven smaller gates
led into the city. One round and many square towers, some still standing to a
height of up to 20 m., defended the circuit walls.
History:
The standing portions of the city walls mostly date to the Hellenistic period,
but earlier phases are visible in places; some of these probably date back to
the Archaic period.
This text is cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 42 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Assos
Type: Gymnasium
Summary: Colonnaded courtyard with rooms; inside the main city gate
immediately to the east, between the propylon and the agora.
Date: ca. 200 B.C. - 100 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
Paved courtyard with Doric colonnade. Three rooms adjoining on northeast and a
4th room touching the easternmost of the 3 rooms on its eastern corner. Cistern
in southwest corner. Entrance on south of courtyard. Attached triangular court
outside of south wall.
History:
Columns of courtyard had no entasis. Remains of Byzantine church in northwest
corner of the colonnade, with apse showing on the east.
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Site: Assos
Type: Stoa
Summary: Two-storied Doric stoa; on the north side of the agora.
Date: ca. 300 B.C. - 100 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
Exterior and interior colonnade of unfluted Doric columns in both stories. Exterior
colonnade of upper story composed of double half-columns.
This text is cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 2 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Assos
Type: Stoa
Summary: Two-aisled stoa; on the south side of the agora.
Date: ca. 300 B.C. - 100 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
(The plan accompanying this card is of the agora level.) First story (lowest),
cisterns; 2nd, 13 shops opening south onto a gallery; 3rd, two-aisled gallery;
4th, (agora level) two-aisled with a Doric outer colonnade, opened north; fifth
story, two-aisled with Doric outer colonnade of double half-columns and inner
colonnade with palm-capitals.
History:
Coulton lists the 5 levels described above in Plan description. Akurgal and
PECS cite this stoa as three-storied.
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Site: Assos
Type: Temple
Summary: Small prostyle temple; located at the west end of the agora,
midway between the North and South stoas.
Date: ca. 200 B.C. - 100 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
Cella opening east, onto a pronaos having 4 prostyle columns.
This text is cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Assos
Type: Temple
Summary: Peripteral temple; on the city acropolis, north of the
agora.
Date: ca. 540 B.C. - 530 B.C.
Period: Archaic
Plan:
Doric peripteral temple, 6 x 13 columns. Cella opening east onto a pronaos
distyle in antis.
History:
The architrave was decorated with a frieze, adding to the Doric order a feature
usually seen only in the Ionic order. Excavation in the cella revealed a pebble
mosaic of Hellenistic date, but this is no longer visible.
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Site: Assos
Type: Theater
Summary: Theater; on the slope to the south of the agora.
Date: ca. 250 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
Horseshoe shaped orchestra, cavea with 6 cunei (sectors) facing the stage
building.
History:
In Hellenistic times a wooden fence in front of the 1st row of seats kept
the audience off the orchestra. Probably in Roman times a low podium (top of the
2nd row of seats) and a parapet at orchestra level made the orchestra more of
an arena.
This text is cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
i>Site: Assos
Type: Gate
Summary: Gate; in the western city wall.
Date: ca. 400 B.C. - 300 B.C.
Period: Late Clas./Hell.
Plan:
Rectangular, opening northwest. Guard tower to the east.
History:
The fortifications of Assos are very well preserved, with the east guard tower
of this gate missing only its battlements. Portions of early polygonal masonry
remain in the mostly 4th century B.C. walls. A corbelled arch is used in the main
gate, not a true arch as employed elsewhere at Assos.
This text is cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 11 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
DIDYMA (Ancient sanctuary) TURKEY
Site: Didyma
Type: Temple
Summary: Oracular temple of Apollo located at Didyma in Ionia; foundations
of two earlier phases of the temple located in the adyton of the Hellenistic Temple
of Apollo at Didyma
Date: ca. 540 B.C. - 530 B.C.
Period: Archaic
Plan:
The plan of the first built structure at Didyma, the so-called sekos (Temple I)
dating to ca. 700 B.C., consisted of a simple rectangular enclosure, open to the
sky; the foundations of this sekos have been found within the adyton of the Hellenistic
temple. The walls of the sekos were not parallel, but converged towards the east.
No columns are associated with the earliest sekos, and its eastern extension is
unknown. In the sixth century B.C., a naiskos or small shrine was constructed
inside the sekos, towards the west (rear) wall; whether or not this naiskos was
built before the construction of the archaic temple (Temple II), or was contemporary
with Temple II is disputed. The plan of the archaic temple is uncertain, and a
number of reconstructions have been proposed. Within the Hellenistic adyton were
found the north, south and west foundation walls of the adyton of the second temple,
Temple II. This archaic adyton was larger than the entire sekos of ca. 700 B.C.
One reconstruction of the archaic temple Gruben 1963, fig. 1 proposed a dipteral
temple on a two-stepped crepidoma, with 21 columns along the flanks, 9 across
the rear, and 8 across the facade. The deep pronaos contained two rows of columns,
with four columns in each row; a staircase led down to the long adyton, whose
interior walls were articulated by eight projecting piers. Within the adyton,
towards the west rear wall, stood the naiskos which Gruben reconstructs as distyle
in antis. This naiskos and the archaic temple are reconstructed as being on axis
with the archaic circular ash altar located to the east. Subsequent excavations,
Drerup 1964, 364-367, have revealed that the adyton walls did not extend as far
to the east as Gruben indicated, and thus the following reconstruction was proposed
Tuchelt 1970, 203-205, Tuchelt 1973, fig. 3: a dipteral colonnade with 17 columns
along the flanks, 9 across the rear, and 8 across the facade, surrounding a deep
pronaos with two rows of four columns each, and an adyton, approached by a staircase
from the pronaos. The interior walls of the adyton, being shorter than those imagined
by Gruben, were thus articulated by only five projecting piers. In Tuchelt's reconstruction,
the archaic temple is oriented on axis with the archaic circular altar ca. 40
m. to the east, whereas the naiskos, thought by Tuchelt to belong to Temple I,
is out of alignment with Temple II and the archaic altar. A third reconstruction,
Fehr 1972, 16-29, sees the archaic temple as containing some of the complexities
apparent in the Hellenistic temple, in particular additional chambers and passages
between the pronaos and the adyton. Fehr accepts the shorter crepidoma proposed
by Tuchelt, but, employing a shorter interaxial intercolumniation, proposes a
dipteral colonnade of 21 columns along the flanks and, as in the Hellenistic temple,
10 across both front and back. According to Fehr, the pronaos was five-aisled,
with four rows of columns containing three in each row. Between the pronaos and
the adyton was a complicated system of east chamber (in which stood two columns),
transverse hallway with stairs leading to an upper floor, and an antechamber at
the west, also containing two columns. Fehr also proposes that vaulted passages
led from the pronaos to the adyton, the prototype for the Hellenistic arrangement.
History:
The earliest building phase at the temple site is represented by the fragmentary
stretches of converging walls located within the Hellenistic adyton. These remains
are interpreted as the foundations of a late geometric sekos or open enclosure,
whose superstructure was of mudbrick, constructed ca. 700 B.C. In the early sixth
century, a naiskos was built inside this sekos. The remains of this naiskos are
interpreted as later than the exterior walls of the sekos, due to the use of a
different construction technique (by Drerup 1964, 362-363 and Tuchelt 1970, 197-203).
Drerup and Tuchelt therefore date the first naiskos to ca. 575 B.C. In ca. 540
B.C., a larger temple, the archaic temple (Temple II) was built; its adyton walls
enclosed the entire late geometric sekos. Gruben 1963, 100-102 and Fehr 1972,
56-59 see the construction of the naiskos as contemporary with the archaic Temple
II, at ca. 540 B.C. The archaic sanctuary and its oracle was under the control
of a priestly tribe, the Branchidai, until it was destroyed by the Persians. Hdt.
6.19.2-3 attributes this destruction to Darius, in 494 B.C., while later writers,
notably Strabo 14.1.5, attribute this destruction to Xerxes in 479 B.C. The earlier
destruction date is generally accepted. After the Persian destruction, there is
evidence of renewed building activity at the temple: anta capitals decorated with
volutes in relief, and other architectural elements, may belong to altars erected
in the adyton. This evidence may indicate that Didyma remained an active cult
center throughout the fifth century B.C., although there is no evidence of oracular
responses until the oracle was revived in ca. 331 B.C.
Other Notes:
The late geometric sekos was most probably erected around the sacred spring, which
was located near the rear of the adyton, in the vicinity of the archaic and later
Hellenistic naiskos. Architectural remains from the archaic temple indicate that
the lower column drums of the east facade were decorated with marble female figures
in relief, of archaic East Greek style, and perhaps reflecting the influence of
the archaic Artemision at Ephesos (see Berlin Sk 1721 and Sk 1748 ). Fragments
of Ionic capitals with convex channels were found; these supported a marble architrave.
The corners of the architraves were decorated with running gorgons accompanied
by recumbent lions. In the late sixth century B.C., the temple received a bronze
cult image of Apollo made by the sculptor Kanachos. This statue probably stood
in the naiskos of the temple, and was transported to Ecbatana after the Persian
destruction.
Sarah Cormack, ed.
This text is cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 6 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Didyma
Type: Temple
Summary: Monumental oracular temple of Apollo, situated in Milesian
territory in Ionia and connected to Miletus by the Sacred Way.
Date: ca. 300 B.C. - A.D. 200
Period: Hellenistic/Roman
Plan:
In plan, the temple presents a number of unusual features. It is a monumental,
dipteral temple on a seven-stepped crepidoma, with decastyle facade and twenty-one
columns along the flanks. The temple is oriented to the east; its pronaos is approached
by a flight of fourteen steps between projecting low walls or wings. The temple
has no opisthodomos; and its pronaos contains three rows of four columns each.
A wall bars access to the cella (or adyton) from the pronaos; above the wall,
a wide opening or window allowed the visitor to glimpse the naiskos in the interior
of the cella. On the right and left sides of the west wall of the pronaos, doorways
lead to two sloping, barrel-vaulted passageways. These passages or tunnels emerge
on the third step of a monumental staircase. By descending this staircase, the
visitor arrives in the cella; by ascending these twenty two steps, the visitor
is brought back up to a room, the east chamber, situated between the pronaos and
the cella. The east chamber was entered through three doors in its west wall,
and contains two Corinthian columns which supported the roof of the chamber. Two
staircases, at the north and south of the east chamber, perhaps led to the roof
of this room. The cella or adyton was situated ca. 4 m. below the level of the
east chamber, and was hypaethral. The cella walls were articulated by Ionic pilasters
supported by a podium; there were nine along each side and three across the rear
wall, in addition to the corner pilasters. Between the doors to the east chamber,
on the east wall of the adyton, were two engaged Corinthian half-columns. Towards
the rear (west) wall of the cella or adyton stood a small shrine or naiskos in
the form of a tetrastyle prostyle temple of Ionic order, the location of the sacred
spring of the oracle and possibly the home of the cult image of Apollo.
History:
Following the destruction of the archaic temple in 494 B.C., there are no records
of oracular pronouncements for ca. 160 years, although the site may have remained
an active cult center. In ca. 331 B.C. the oracle was revived and the planning
of the new Hellenistic temple was begun. The design of the Hellenistic temple
is attributed by Vitruvius to Paionios of Ephesos and Daphnis of Miletus (Vitr.
7. praef.16). Although the start date for the construction of the temple is disputed,
inscriptions dating to ca. 299/98 B.C. indicate that Seleukos I Nikator, significant
benefactor of the town of Miletus, had provided much funding for the construction
of the new temple by that date; revenue from the east stoa of the South Market
at Miletus , funded by Seleukos' son Antiochos, also contributed to the construction
of the temple. In the early third century B.C., the cult image of Apollo which
had been removed by the Persians was returned to Didyma from Ecbatana by Seleukos
I Nikator (Paus. 1.16.3). Inscribed building accounts indicate that the elements
of the temple which were completed prior to ca. 230 B.C. were the socle wall of
the adyton, the naiskos, the vaulted passages to the adyton, and parts of the
crepidoma. Prior to ca. 165 B.C., the pilasters in the adyton, the two staircases
(known as labyrinths in the building accounts), doors and the main portal were
completed. Also in the early years of the second century B.C., a stadium was erected
to the south of the temple to accommodate games associated with the festival of
Apollo Didymeus. That the temple itself was never completed is reported by Pausanias
(Paus. 7.5.4), and is apparent from a number of unfinished columns at the site.
The Emperor Gaius Caligula intended to complete the temple (Suet. Gaius 21). Certain
elements of the temple, such as Ionic capital fragments, architrave fragments,
corner capitals with busts of deities, and the frieze with Medusa heads, date
to the second century A.D., and are witness to the intermittent periods of construction
at the temple over the centuries. In A.D. 262/3 the temple was besieged by Goths,
who failed to capture it. In the Byzantine period a basilica was constructed above
the adyton. Later, the eastern part of the temple was converted into a fort. In
1493, an earthquake caused the collapse of all but three of the structure's columns.
Other Notes:
The monumental Temple of Apollo at Didyma contains numerous features worthy of
note, ranging from the unusually elaborate treatment of various architectural
elements, to certain complications of design which are interpreted in the light
of the oracular function of the temple. The pilaster capitals of the interior
walls of the adyton are varied in design, with an enclosed panel decorated with
griffins, vertical palmettes, or acanthus foliage; these capitals probably date
to the early second century B.C. Between the pilaster capitals ran a frieze of
griffins and lyres, similarly dating to the second century B.C. The use of Corinthian
engaged and free-standing columns in the adyton east wall and the east chamber
is an example of the use of the Corinthian order to provide interior accents,
and underscored the organic nature of much of the decoration of the temple. The
bases of the two rows of ten columns across the east facade are treated in diverse
ways, including dodecagonal bases with panels depicting Nereids and sea creatures
or foliage; circular discs with meanders, laurel leaves, etc. These bases probably
date to the second century A.D. The ceilings of the two staircases preserved in
the east chamber are carved with a meander pattern, on which traces of red and
blue paint can still be discerned. These meanders may have some connection with
the function of the stairs, which are referred to as labyrinths in the building
accounts. In spite of these complexities of design, the temple of Apollo at Didyma
employed a system of proportions based on the standard interaxial spacing; measurements
of the elevation were related to this interaxial proportion. Such a design principle
may reflect the influence of such regular, ordered plans as that of the Temple
of Athena at Priene .The high threshold of the opening in the pronaos is interpreted
as a sort of stage from which the prophetess may have given oracular pronouncements.
The low level of the interior of the adyton relative to the stylobate may have
been dictated by the presence of the sacred spring in the adyton, an essential
feature of the oracular cult. It is known that laurel groves grew in the open-air
adyton, although eventually this area was also paved. An additional structure
referred to in building accounts and no doubt connected with the oracle is the
Chesmographion, also known as the Prophet's House. Although the exact location
of this structure is not known, it stood within the temenos, and, as its name
implies, may have been the site where oracular responses were written down. In
seeking to explain the complexities of the design of the temple, scholars have
seen the influence of Iranian palace architecture (Fehr 1972, 14-59) or Ptolemaic
temples and residences (Parke 1986, 128, 131 n.31).
Sarah Cormack, ed.
This text is cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 47 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
MILITOS (Ancient city) TURKEY
Site: Miletus
Type: Bouleuterion
Summary: Council house consisting of a rectangular hall with semi-circular
rows of seats, a peristyle courtyard in front, and a propylon; located in the
city center between the north agora and the south agora.
Date: ca. 175 B.C. - 164 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
The complex consists of three main elements: a propylon at the east facade, a
rectangular courtyard with interior colonnade around its north, east and south
sides, and the bouleuterion or council hall located at the west (rear) of the
complex. The propylon had four prostyle Corinthian columns in front of antae;
an additional two Corinthian columns, corresponding to the central two of the
facade, stood in the Doric colonnade of the courtyard. The bouleuterion itself
is a rectangular hall, oriented roughly north-south. It was entered via four doors
from the courtyard to the east, and through two doorways in the west wall. Within
the hall are eighteen rows of stone seats, slightly greater than a semi-circle.
Four radiating flights of steps provide access to the seats from the orchestra
area; additional stairs lead to the upper seats from the rear corners of the building.
The seating capacity was ca. 1200-1500. Two pairs of Ionic columns on pedestals
originally helped support the roof; later, wooden posts were added.
History:
The building complex is securely dated to the years 175 - 164 B.C., through the
evidence of two dedication inscriptions preserved on the architrave of the bouleuterion
itself and the architrave of the propylon. The inscription records that two brothers,
Timarchos and Herakleides, dedicated the building, on behalf of Antiochus IV Epiphanes,
to Apollo of Didyma, Hestia Bulaia and the demos of Miletus. Restorations and
renovations to the bouleuterion include the following: an additional door added
in the east wall; the restoration of the rows of seats and the extension of the
rows to a horseshoe formation; and the erection of a structure in the center of
the courtyard. These restorations probably date to the Augustan period. In the
late empire, a mosaic floor was laid parallel to the east wall of the bouleuterion,
and the courtyard was paved with marble slabs. In the center of the Doric courtyard
is a monumental structure, most recently and convincingly interpreted as an altar,
not a funerary monument Tuchelt 1975, 91-140. The altar has a socle carved with
bucrania and garlands, a Corinthian colonnade in front of slabs carved with mythological
scenes, and a central flight of steps, in the tradition of Hellenistic altars
such as the Great Altar at Pergamon. The Miletus altar probably dates to the Augustan
period, and is associated with the emergence of the Imperial cult in the east.
Other Notes:
The text of the inscription from the architrave of the propylon (more complete
than that from the bouleuterion) is restored as follows: [TIMARCHO]SK[AIERAKLEIDE]SOIERAKLEIDOUUPERBAS[ILEOSA]NTIOCHOUEPIPHAN[OUSAPO]LLONIDIDUMEIKAIESTIAIBO[U]LAIAIKAITOIDEMOI
"Timarchos and Herakleides, sons of Herakleides, (dedicated the building) on behalf
of King Antiochus Epiphanes, to Apollo of Didyma, Hestia Bulaia, and the Demos."
A number of inscriptions from the Hellenistic and Roman periods are preserved
in the colonnade of the courtyard, and on the antae of the propylon: cf. Knackfuss
1908, 100-122. Fragments of two monumental marble tripods were found in the council
chamber and in the courtyard; they may have stood in the two rear corners of the
chamber, at the upper level. At the south end of the passageway inside the east
wall of the bouleuterion is a small underground chamber covered with a heavy marble
slab; the skeletons discovered inside it are probably later burials, and the excavators
interpret the chamber as a treasury. The construction of a bouleuterion as an
element of an architectural complex with a pronounced facade (the propylon) prefigures
developments in Roman architecture. The use of the elaborate Corinthian capitals
in the propylon suggests links with other Seleucid dedications in Asia Minor and
elsewhere in the Hellenistic period: for example, the Temple of Olympian Zeus
at Athens, the Temple of Apollo at Didyma, and the Temple of Zeus Olbios at Olba/Diokaisareia
(located in the sphere of Seleucid influence).
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Site: Miletus
Type: Sanctuary
Summary: The sanctuary of Apollo Delphinios is a rectangular temenos
enclosure bordered by two-aisled stoas at the north, east and south. The sanctuary
is situated to the north-east of the North Market of Miletus, close to the Lion
Harbor.
Date: ca. 340 B.C. - 320 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
In plan, the sanctuary consists of an open, rectangular temenos area with two-aisled
stoas at the north, east and south. The north and south porticoes were bisected
by a cross-wall. At the west, a wall with two doorways formed a boundary for the
temenos; the wall was later replaced by another portico. Within the temenos are
located semi-circular exedrae or votive benches, a round temple or monopteros
dating to the Roman period, and a rectangular altar.
History:
Since the cult of Apollo Delphinios is Cretan in origin, it is assumed that a
sanctuary existed at Miletus for the worship of Apollo Delphinios from the period
of the earliest settlers. There is literary evidence for a Delphinion at Miletus
in the sixth century B.C., Diogenes Laertius 1.29, although the earliest remains
at the site of the present Delphinion date to the fifth century B.C., and the
location and form of the archaic sanctuary are uncertain. The earliest preserved
remains at the Delphinion are the rectangular altar with volute acroteria, and
a number of marble round altars; these predate the Persian destruction of 494
B.C. It is thought that the round altars were collected from various locations
and brought to the Delphinion at this time. In the fifth century B.C., when Miletus
was rebuilt, the Delphinion took the form of a small rectangular enclosure of
ca. 30 x 45 m., which was bordered by stoas at the north and south. Fragments
of archaic building materials were reused. In the late fourth century B.C., the
sanctuary was renovated and enlarged, expanding to the east and now measuring
ca. 61 x 51 m. New two-aisled stoas with inner and outer colonnades of the Doric
order were built at the north, east and south sides, while the west side was closed
off with a wall. In the late Hellenistic period, the enclosure was made completely
peristylar with the addition of a one-aisled stoa at the west. In the mid-second
century A.D., a circular shrine or monopteros was constructed in the temenos,
and the porticoes were altered to single-aisled colonnades with Corinthian capitals.
A propylon was also erected in the middle of the west side.
Other Notes:
The annual Spring procession which went from Miletus to the Temple of Apollo at
Didyma began at the Delphinion. The architectural form of the sanctuary, an open
court, was appropriate for a gathering place and for the performance of sacrifices.
The numerous inscriptions (dating from the archaic to the late Roman periods)
preserved on the walls of the Delphinion indicate that the sanctuary also functioned
as the city archive. For the inscriptions, see Kawerau and Rehm 1914, 162-406.
One inscription Kawerau and Rehm 1914, no. 32 refers to the construction of a
"new" portico; the inscription is dated to ca. 340-320 B.C. and thus not only
provides a date for the construction of the Hellenistic porticoes but also indicates
that an earlier portico (or porticoes) stood on the site.
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Site: Miletus
Type: Fortification
Summary: A fortification wall containing curtains and towers, enclosing
the classical city of Miletus within the peninsula north of the Kalabaktepe.
Date: ca. 411 B.C. - 150 B.C.
Period: Late Clas./Hell.
Plan:
The late-fifth century circuit wall, preserved in the east, is zig-zag in plan;
it is unclear whether or not it contained towers. The southern cross wall, which
forms the southern boundary of classical Miletus, consists of indented traces
separated by square towers. There are eight curtains and nine square towers. The
excavators postulate that beyond the southern cross wall, ditches and outworks
further protected the wall, which ran across relatively open and level ground.
To the east and west, the fortification wall continues in a north-south direction,
punctuated by square towers and sections of indented trace. The fortification
wall also protected the city at the north. In places, the city wall contains chambers
interpreted either as storage rooms for artillery, or as guardrooms. Staircases
at intervals on the interior of the wall led to the various levels of the towers,
and to the parodos. Significant city structures, notably the theater and stadium,
are built into the city wall at the west. At the eastern extension of the southern
cross wall, a monumental gateway, the Sacred Gate, marked the entrance and exit
of the Sacred Way to Didyma. This Sacred Gate, in both its early and late phases,
consisted of an arcuated passageway flanked by monumental square towers. In the
eastern stretch of wall is the second monumental gateway of Miletus, the Lion
Gate.
History:
The history of the fortifications of Miletus is complex. A late Mycenaean wall,
dating to pre-1000 B.C., has been detected near the Harbor by the Theater. Early
fortifications protected the Kalabaktepe to the south of the peninsula of classical
Miletus; these archaic walls may date to ca. 650 B.C., and were restored after
ca. 550 B.C. The earliest circuit to enclose the classical city of Miletus is
dated between 411 and 402 B.C., at which time the wall also was extended to the
Kalabaktepe. The line of the first Sacred Gate reveals the line of the earliest
circuit wall; it is unclear whether this earliest circuit contained towers, as
at Priene, or not. The section of wall which is built into the theater predates
ca. 300 B.C. The best-preserved section of the city wall of Miletus, the southern
cross-wall, which protects the peninsula, was built in the Hellenistic period,
in ca. 200-190 B.C. This section underwent a significant restoration, originally
dated by von Gerkan 1935, 125 to ca. 88 B.C., but perhaps occurring as early as
ca. 150 B.C. Winter 1971, 278. At ca. 200-190 B.C., a new Sacred Gate was built
to the north of the old gate; its towers constituted the first towers in the southern
cross wall. In the first and second centuries A.D., the necessity for a defensive
wall was less great; however, alterations to the Sacred Gate continued, some of
its rooms functioning as part of the city's water supply system. In the late third
century A.D., incursions of invaders into Asia Minor led to the restoration of
the city wall. A section of wall dating to the time of Justinian extends along
the north of the Miletus,South Market . In the Byzantine period, sections of the
wall were rebuilt, and a castle was constructed incorporating the upper levels
of the theater.
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Site: Miletus
Type: Stoa
Summary: A rectangular level area in the middle of the peninsula
of Miletus, near the Bay of Lions; gradually enclosed by stoas, forming a commercial
center for the city.
Date: ca. 350 B.C. - A.D. 160
Period: Hellenistic/Roman
Plan:
In plan, the North Market consists of a rectangular space enclosed at the north
and west by an L-shaped stoa, and at the south and west by a second L-shaped stoa.
Both stoas were one-aisled; the north stoa had rows of shops behind its north
and west wings, while the south stoa had none. In the middle of the west wall
of the Market stood a small building interpreted as a temple, with square cella,
deep pronaos and four Ionic prostyle columns. An enclosing wall, built later,
also ran along the east side of the Market, with a columnar gateway in the middle.
History:
The level area which the North Market occupies was set aside as a market location
during the rebuilding of Miletus following the Persian destruction. The earliest
building in the vicinity of the North Market is a rectangular structure built
of gneiss, located to the south-west of the market. This may have functioned as
the prytaneion in the fourth century B.C. In the late fourth century B.C., a long
stoa was built to the north, near the harbor (the so-called Stoa by the Harbor).
Probably at about the same date the first of the stoas of the North Market, the
north L-shaped stoa, was constructed. Behind this one-aisled L-shaped stoa to
the west was a peristyle court, which may have served as the first commercial
market for the city and probably constitutes the earliest market court in the
ancient world. There are no traces of building activity at the North Market in
the third century B.C. In the mid-second century B.C., an additional L-shaped,
one-aisled stoa was built, running along the south and west of the North Market.
Thus the market was now enclosed by a horseshoe-shaped complex of stoas. In the
mid-first century B.C. an enclosing wall with a central columnar gateway was built
along the east of the North Market; previously this area had remained open. In
the second century A.D. the east side of the North Market was more completely
enclosed by means of a row of rooms, most likely shops. Also dating to the Roman
period is the addition of an upper story to the south L-shaped stoa.
Other Notes:
A number of monuments from various periods were erected in the North Market: in
the center are the poros foundations of a square structure, probably the Market
Altar. In the north-west of the courtyard area are the foundations of an inscribed
stele, the so-called "Blood Inscription," dating to the fifth century B.C., in
which the overthrown oligarchs are proscribed (von Gerkan 1922, 100 no. 187).
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Site: Miletus
Type: Altar
Summary: Rectangular altar building with projecting staircase leading
to the altar terrace; located at the shore at ancient Cape Poseidon (modern Tekagac)
south of Miletus and ca. 7 km. distant from Didyma.
Date: ca. 575 B.C.
Period: Archaic
Plan:
The altar building consists of two rectangular forms, the altar terrace itself
and the adjoining staircase of six steps. The altar is oriented to the east, and
the entrance via the staircase is at the west. The sacrificial altar itself stood
on the altar terrace, close to the east wall.
History:
The altar was constructed in the first half of the sixth century B.C. Strabo records
that it was built by Neleus, mythical founder of Miletus. Strabo 14.633. Although
this is apocryphal, it probably indicates that a cult to Poseidon existed at the
location since earliest times. The altar shows no evidence of restoration or reconstruction,
and probably stood intact until the Byzantine period, when an earthquake may have
damaged it extensively. Thereafter, the marble blocks of the superstructure were
taken away, probably by sea, for reuse elsewhere.
Other Notes:
A round marble statue base of archaic form was found in the vicinity of the altar.
Other small finds include coins, pottery fragments, and Hellenistic and Roman
glass fragments, indicating that dedications were made at the altar over a number
of centuries.
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Site: Miletus
Type: Stoa
Summary: Rectangular market area in center of city, south of the
North Market and the Bouleuterion. Bordered at the east by a long portico, and
at the north and south by two L-shaped stoas.
Date: ca. 280 B.C. - 150 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
In plan, the South Market is a large, rectangular space defined by stoas. At the
east extends a long portico with three rows of rooms behind it; at the north is
a two-aisled L-shaped stoa without additional rooms; and at the south, a second
two-aisled L-shaped stoa with a single row of rooms behind the south wing.
History:
The planning of the South Market at Miletus dates to slightly later than the North
Market at Miletus . The first structure built here was the long east portico with
its three rows of shops; this building was most likely funded by Antiochos I in
the early third century B.C. Sometime in the third or second century B.C. the
two L-shaped stoas at the north and south were built, possibly in imitation of
the L-shaped stoas of the North Market. The north L-shaped stoa appears to have
been built before that in the south. The appearance of the South Market in the
late Hellenistic period evolved gradually, in a similar manner to the North Market,
and may not have been anticipated by fourth-century planners. Construction continued
at the South Market throughout the Roman period, most notably with the erection
of the monumental and elaborate Market Gate in the north-east corner. The Roman
restorations to the South Market had the effect of reducing the area to a fully
enclosed square, with the construction of gateways in the north-east and south-east
connecting the stoas.
Other Notes:
The interpretation of the South Market as the political agora of Miletus is open
to question, although statue bases of leading figures of the Hellenistic and Roman
periods were erected in the colonnades of the east portico. The east portico is
interpreted by the excavators as a shopping area, and may be the STOASTADIAIA"Stoa
of a stade," referred to in an inscription from Didyma. In the north east corner
of the South Market, underneath the location of the elaborate Market Gate dating
to the second century A.D., are the remains of a double Corinthian portico dedicated
to Laodike by the people of Miletus - probably Laodike II, wife of Antiochos II
(261-246 B.C.) The building is probably a Hellenistic fountain house. The South
Agora covered an area equivalent to twenty city blocks or insulae at the site,
and was designed to conform to the grid pattern city plan.
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Site: Miletus
Type: Stadium
Summary: A rectangular stadium, without curved ends, located in
the west of the peninsula of Miletus, to the south of the Harbor by the Theater.
Date: ca. 166 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
The stadium conforms to the grid of the city plan of Miletus, and is oriented
east-west. The stadium consists of two rectangular blocks of seats which flank
the central arena or running track. At the west is a distyle in antis propylon
of Ionic order, on seven steps, built on axis with the stadium and linking it
to an unexcavated building; at the east, a monumental double colonnade of eight
monolithic Corinthian columns dates to the late Roman period.
History:
The stadium was constructed during the reign of Eumenes II, in the first half
of the second century B.C. The unexcavated building to the west of the stadium
is a gymnasium, tentatively named the Gymnasium of Eumenes II, connected to the
stadium by a propylon; thus the stadium, propylon and gymnasium originally constituted
a building complex dating to ca. 160 B.C. In the first century B.C., the northern
parodos wall of the stadium was renovated, and at this time a second series of
starting blocks was laid down at the east and west ends of the arena. In the Trajanic
or Antonine period, the gymnasium at the west end of the stadium was restored,
as was the propylon, and there were further renovations at the east end of the
stadium, notably the staircase leading up to the rows of seats. In the third century
A.D. a monumental double-colonnaded gateway with Corinthian columns was built
across the east end of the stadium. In the sixth century A.D. the new fortifications
of Miletus incorporated the stadium into their circuit.
Other Notes:
The fact that the stadium conforms to the grid plan of Miletus has led some scholars
to conclude that when the city was newly laid out in ca. 479 B.C., space was already
allocated for the stadium. The fact that the stadium was not constructed until
the second century B.C., however, is clear from its building inscription, architectural
details, and relationship to the gymnasium to the west. The stadium lacks the
curved ends or sphendone typical of stadia of the Roman period, and is similar
to the groundplans of the stadia at Olympia, Epidauros and Priene. Another similarity
between the stadium at Miletus and the Stadium at Priene is the form and arrangement
of the starting blocks or APHESIS, although their exact mechanism remains unclear.
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Site: Miletus
Type: Temple
Summary: Peripteral Ionic temple in south-west of city, constructed
on a terrace; unusual north-south orientation.
Date: ca. 480 B.C. - 450 B.C.
Period: Classical
Plan:
Only the foundations of the temple are preserved. Its reconstruction is, therefore,
hypothetical, and is based on probable proportions and assumed relationship to
the foundation walls, rather than on the evidence of preserved architectural elements.
The most recent proposal restores the groundplan as follows: above a massive terraced
structure stood the temple, with cella, deep pronaos, and peristyle of Ionic columns.
The temple was distyle in antis, with a dipteral facade of eight columns, and
fourteen columns along the flanks. The earlier reconstruction showing the temple
as 6 x 10 with a tall podium and frontal steps (von Gerkan 1925) is probably incorrect.
History:
Finds in the area such as pottery, votives of bronze and terracotta, and bronze
griffin protomes indicate that a sanctuary or cult center to Athena existed here
from at least the archaic period, if not even earlier. Buildings of the Mycenaean
and archaic period (houses?) are attested in the vicinity, but their relationship
to the temple is unclear. In the archaic period (7th c. B.C.) a smaller temple
to Athena was erected on the site, oriented east-west; this was destroyed when
the newer temple was built. Sometime in the fifth century B.C., the second temple
to Athena was built on the site, and its orientation was altered to conform to
the new city plan. In the late Hellenistic period, a peristyle house was built
adjacent to the temple peribolos at the west; in the Roman period, additions to
this house encroached even further on the temple area. In the Hellenistic period
the construction of the West Agora of Miletus, to the north of the Temple of Athena,
imposed further boundaries on the temple area. In the Imperial period, shops or
small workrooms were built to the east of the temple, and directly over the eastern
temple two vaulted rooms were constructed. It is unlikely that the temple was
still standing in the Roman Imperial period; it has been suggested that the temple
was systematically destroyed to provide construction material for the buildings
of the Roman period.Mallwitz 1975, 88.
Other Notes:
Although there is very little of the temple preserved beyond the foundations,
Mallwitz's reconstruction of the temple as an Ionic pseudodipteral temple with
dipteral facade, on a two- or three-stepped stylobate, seems much more convincing
than von Gerkan's reconstruction of the temple with 6 x 10 columns and a frontal
staircase. A podium temple with frontal steps would be unusual at this early date,
whereas Mallwitz's reconstruction not only is supported by the proportions of
the foundations, but also fits comfortably into the tradition of dipteral and
pseudo-dipteral Ionic temple architecture in Asia Minor.
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Site: Miletus
Type: Temple
Summary: Small archaic temple, oriented to the south, located on
the Kalabaktepe, north of the theater.
Date: ca. 525 B.C.
Period: Archaic
Plan:
The temple is distyle in antis.
History:
The temple dates to the archaic period, to the late 6th century B.C., and did
not undergo later restorations.
Other Notes:
The terracotta simas of the pediment have an ovolo profile, painted alternately
red and black with white darts; above the ovolo is a painted chevron and meander
design, and below the ovolo is a painted astragal painted red and white with rectangular
beads. The terracotta antefixes are molded with Medusa heads, lion's heads and
lotus flowers in relief above a guilloche design.
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Site: Miletus
Type: Theater
Summary: Theater with horseshoe-shaped cavea, and stage-building
of many different periods; built into a hill between the Bay of Lions and the
Theater Harbor.
Date: ca. 300 B.C. - 133 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic/Roman
Plan:
The cavea of the theater originally consisted of three tiers each containing twenty
rows of seats; the lowest tier is divided into five cunei or wedges by stairs,
the second tier into ten wedges, and the upper tier had twenty wedges. This uppermost
tier was destroyed with the construction of a mediaeval citadel in this location.
The stage building underwent numerous transformations from the fourth century
B.C. to the late third century A.D.; a significant feature of the plan of the
theater is the incorporation of the rear wall of the stage building into the circuit
of the city walls.
History:
The stage building and the cavea of the theater underwent significant transformations
over time. Although the preserved remains date to the Roman period, the Hellenistic
phases of construction are understood. Four phases of construction of the Hellenistic
stage building have been recognized. The earliest skene, dating to ca. 300 B.C.,
was built along the line of the city wall. This skene may have had an upper story
or episcenium, but had no central door in its lower story, only two flanking doors.
There is no archaeological evidence for a proscenium for this first stage building,
but the excavators propose a proscenium articulated with Doric half-columns and
pilasters, via analogy with the proscenium of the Theater at Priene . Shortly
after the construction of the first stage building (ca. 300-250 B.C.) alterations
were carried out, resulting in a much longer skene. During this period, there
were four doors in the lower story and three in the upper story. The proscenium
at this phase is reconstructed as being wider than the stage building, and having
a facade articulated by 16 columns, although this is hypothetical. The third phase
of construction, dated by the excavators to sometime before the mid-second century
B.C., resulted in significant changes to the stage building: a central door was
opened in the lower story, the entire skene was widened again through the addition
of wings at left and right, and the facade of the upper story was opened up with
the addition of wide doors or thyromata. This change was probably prompted by
the alteration in dramatic action which occurred at this time; the Theater at
Priene also experienced similar renovations to accommodate the demands of New
Comedy. With the shift of action from the circular orchestra to the roof of the
stage building, the facade of the upper story of the stage building became the
backdrop for the action. Five large doorways or thyromata were opened up in this
third phase; these doors were the location of stage scenery, and allowed the actors
to enter and exit. Wooden stairs at left and right allowed access to this upper
level. There is no direct evidence for alteration of the proscenium of the third
stage - the existing proscenium may have been widened to accord with the greater
dimensions of the stage building. The final Hellenistic stage building was probably
necessitated by the need to provide an adequate logeion. Again, the entire stage
building was widened. Only the central doorway of the lower story was left open;
the others were filled in, making the chambers of the lower story inaccessible
and emphasizing their function now as only the substruction for the more important
upper story. Stone steps which led up to the logeion, and which were originally
thought to belong to the fourth construction phase, are now known to date to the
Roman period. The basic outline of the seats in the lower tiers of the cavea is
thought to date to the Hellenistic period, although little is preserved of the
Hellenistic cavea. In the Flavian period and again in the late second century
A.D. the stage building was further elaborated.
Other Notes:
The theater in its Roman phase represented one of the largest in Asia Minor, with
a seating capacity for ca. 15,000 people. Sculptural decoration from the Hellenistic
theater, possibly from the second skene, includes relief blocks carved with Macedonian
shields and other weapons. A frieze depicting hunting erotes is ascribed to the
School of Aphrodisias, and is dated to the third century A.D.
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PRIINI (Ancient city) TURKEY
Site: Priene
Type: Fortification
Summary: Continuation of city wall circuit at north, east and west
of acropolis, with towers.
Date: ca. 350 B.C. - 340 B.C.
Period: Late Clas./Hell.
Plan:
The acropolis fortification wall uses straight stretches of curtain, not the saw-toothed
design of the lower fortification walls. Square towers project at intervals along
the exterior of the wall. In the north of the acropolis, a gateway is protected
by flanking walls and hollow, two-storied towers.
History:
Like the fortifications of the lower city, the acropolis fortifications date back
to the city's foundation in the mid-fourth century B.C. A round tower at the northern
extension of the acropolis dates to the Byzantine period.
Other Notes:
The acropolis fortifications contain four hollow, inhabitable towers which served
as living quarters for the guard; an inscription indicates that the captain of
the garrison may not leave his post on the acropolis for the entire period of
his duty, one year.
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Site: Priene
Type: House or sanctuary
Summary: Large house-type structure with central courtyard, located
in western section of city, in third housing quarter from west gate; site of possible
cult.
Date: ca. 350 B.C. - 150 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
A central courtyard is bordered on north, east and south by rooms; the entrance
is in the west wall. The northern room, containing a stone podium, is entered
through a colonnaded pronaos and is two-aisled; three smaller rooms open onto
the court in the east; in the south are two additional rooms, built above cellars.
History:
The basic plan of the complex may date back to the fourth century B.C. and may
represent a substantial private dwelling which was subsequently converted into
a sanctuary or cult center; or, it may have been planned as a sanctuary from the
outset. Later construction phases are in evidence: the long northern room with
central colonnade was divided into two by a cross-wall running north-south, and
a second doorway was opened into this room. The mosaic floor of the northern room
of the eastern row was obscured by later wall construction. The renovations and
restorations probably date to the second century B.C.
Other Notes:
A 1.90 m. tall doorpost at the main entrance to the structure is inscribed with
the following text: elache te hierosun[en:] Anaxidemos Apollon[iou:] eisinai eis
[to] hiero hagno e[n] estheti leuk[ei.] "Anaxidemos, son of Apollonios, received
the priesthood to enter the holy temple in white clothing." Inside the northern
room, near the podium, were discovered a number of terracottas (bust of Cybele,
Eros and female, bearded Herm) and marble figurines, including a bearded Herm
and a bust of Alexander the Great. Also near the podium stood a marble offering
table, in front of which a natural fissure in the bedrock forms a pit. This pit
is interpreted as a sacrificial pit through analogy with that in the Sanctuary
of Demeter. Architecturally, the entire complex in no way resembles a typical
Greek sanctuary. This divergence from public cult architecture leads to the suggestion
that the structure was essentially a private cult center. If it was initially
a private house, it may have been the one in which Alexander the Great stayed
when he spent some time in Priene in 334 B.C.
Sarah Cormack, ed.
This text is cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Priene
Type: Altar
Summary: Rectangular altar located 12.35 m. east of the Temple of
Athena, on axis with the temple.
Date: ca. 325 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
A low, rectangular altar standing on two steps; its sides were probably decorated
with half-column pilasters between which are a series of low podia, supporting
twenty relief panels. In the relief panels were carved draped female figures,
almost certainly Muses, and a figure of Apollo Kitharoidos. The columns supported
an entablature consisting of an architrave crowned by an ovolo and dentil, with
cornice course of Ionic geison with ovolo crown, and finally a cyma recta. The
relief panels and columns essentially formed a screen wall around the three sides
of the altar platform on which the sacrifices took place.
History:
The history of the altar is difficult to reconstruct with certainty. The dating
of the sculptures, based on stylistic considerations, has resulted in dates ranging
from the late third century to the mid-second century B.C. There is general agreement
that the altar is of later date than the temple itself, and the most recent analysis
suggests that the altar reliefs were carved in the late third century B.C. The
architectural style of the altar itself, however, is consistent with an earlier
date, in the second half of the fourth century, leading some to conclude that
the altar was planned at this time, but not actually executed until later. When
the temple was rededicated to Athena and Augustus in the late first century B.C.,
this rededication was also recorded on the architrave of the altar.
Other Notes:
The altar was first discovered by Pullan and briefly described in his Antiquities
of Ionia, IV (1881). The reconstruction of the altar as low and rectangular in
form was first suggested by Schrader (1904); this reconstruction was challenged
by Dorpfeld and von Gerkan (1924), who viewed the altar as similar in plan to
the Great Altar at Pergamon. By analogy with the Pergamon monument, the Priene
altar was thus dated to some time after the mid-second century B.C. Recent analysis
of Pullan's excavation notes and photographs, and the discovery of additional
relief fragments, has led Carter (1983) to confirm Schrader's initial reconstruction
of the monument as a low altar. The Pergamon analogy is thus erroneous, and the
style of the reliefs may also suggest an earlier date, that is, in the last quarter
of the third century B.C.
Sarah Cormack, ed.
This text is cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 6 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Priene
Type: Bouleuterion
Summary: Bouleuterion or meeting hall in center of city, next to
the Prytaneion; oriented to the south.
Date: ca. 200 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
Almost square in plan, the bouleuterion contains rows of seats on its west, north
and east sides: 16 rows on the north, and ten each on the west and east. The south
wall contains a rectangular niche or exedra with arched roof. Stepped aisles lead
diagonally up to the rows of seats from the central floor area, or "orchestra,"
in which stands a marble altar. Regularly-spaced piers, six on each of the north,
west and east sides, would have supported the wooden roof. The building was entered
through doorways in the north, west, and south walls.
History:
Construction of the bouleuterion began in ca. 200 B.C. During a later phase of
reconstruction, the span of the roof was judged to be too wide, and the piers
were accordingly brought closer to the center. Buttresses were also added between
the piers and the side walls. The building was destroyed - probably by fire -
at some time during the Christian period; beyond the north-west corner of the
bouleuterion, a small chapel was built, and traces of Christian burials were discovered
near the north wall.
Other Notes:
The bouleuterion provided seating for 600-700 people, a large number considering
the population of Priene. Thus it may have been an Ekklesiasterion, or meeting
hall for the Assembly of citizens, rather than a bouleuterion or meeting hall
for council members alone. The exedra in the south wall, with its arcuated lintel,
also served as a light well for the bouleuterion; it is uncertain whether additional
windows existed higher in the walls.
Sarah Cormack, ed.
This text is cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 39 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Priene
Type: Fortification
Summary: Well-preserved fortification wall circuit with towers,
enclosing the site and the acropolis hill in the north.
Date: ca. 350 B.C. - 340 B.C.
Period: Late Clas./Hell.
Plan:
In plan, the walls are of saw-tooth design, with square towers at intervals. The
majority of the towers are solid, but there are hollow, two-storied towers which
served as barracks for the guards. The wall includes in its circuit three city
gates, the East Gate, West Gate, and South-East Gate. The East Gate, the main
entrance to the city, was vaulted with a limestone arch and was reached from the
outside by a long, paved ramp. Two curving walls inside the gate created a horseshoe-shaped
court within which an attacking force would be trapped. The West Gate was also
arched; no towers protected this gate, but the steep topography provided adequate
defense. The South-East Gate was protected by a tower from which a defending force
could fire on the enemy's unprotected right flank. In two locations in the lower
city wall, and once on the acropolis, staircases are preserved which led to a
defensive walkway.
History:
The construction of the fortifications at Priene is contemporary with the new
foundation of the city in ca. 350 B.C.
Other Notes:
Built into the west facade of the South-East Gate is an inscription, contemporary
with the construction of the wall, preserving the following text: hupnotheis Philios
Kuprios genos exalaminos huios Aristonos Naolochon eiden onar thesmophorous te
hagnas potnias em pharesi leokois: opsesi d' en trissais heroa tonde sebein enogon
poleios phulakog choron t' apedeixan: hon heneka hidrusen tonde theio Philios.
"When asleep, Philios Kyprios (of Cyprus?) of the Exalaminos family (?), son of
Ariston of (?) Naolochos, saw in a dream holy reverend Thesmophoroi in white cloaks.
And in three visions they ordered him to honor this hero of the guard of the city
and they showed him the spot. Wherefore Philios established this sanctuary." The
use of the saw-tooth wall design, combined with the contours of the land, would
have compelled an attacking force to concentrate their attack on the projecting
towers. The saw-tooth wall design is referred to by Philo 86.3 as PRIONOTE. The
towers were not bonded into the wall, and thus, if they collapsed, they would
not destroy the adjacent wall circuit. The presence of a tower at the proper left
of the South-East Gate would have enabled a defending force to fire on the unprotected
right flank of an approaching enemy force.
Sarah Cormack, ed.
This text is cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 14 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Priene
Type: Gymnasium
Summary: Gymnasium adjacent to stadium, below center of city, inside
southern city wall
Date: ca. 130 B.C. - 100 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
Square central palaestra surrounded by colonnades; double colonnade in north,
leading to a row of at least five rooms; in the west, an additional row of four
rooms and the monumental entrance to the complex. The colonnade in the north was
two-storied.
History:
An inscription found in the North Stoa of Priene and dating to the mid-second
century B.C. refers to the construction of a new gymnasium, the lower gymnasium.
Funding for the new building was delayed until ca. 130 B.C., when two brothers,
Moschion and Athenopolis, donated considerable funds for its construction. Graffiti
of Republican date indicate that the gymnasium was still in use at this time.
Unlike many Hellenistic gymnasia of Asia Minor, it was not converted into a bath
building in the Roman Imperial period.
Other Notes:
Typologically, the lower gymnasium combines the characteristics of a simple, square
palaestra surrounded by Doric colonnades, with characteristics reminiscent of
agora architecture, here represented by the double colonnade in the north leading
to the Ionic facade of the schoolroom or ephebeum. The lower gymnasium forms part
of a complex together with the adjacent stadium, although there are differences
in their level and orientation. In some respects the gymnasium at Priene accords
with Vitruvius' description of a typical Greek palaestra, surrounded by colonnades
to provide shelter from inclement weather, and with rooms for instruction, washing
and philosophical discussion behind the colonnades.Vitr. De Arch. 5.11.1-2
Sarah Cormack, ed.
This text is cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 3 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Priene
Type: Propylon
Summary: Monumental entrance to the Athena Sanctuary, oriented east-west;
not aligned with central axis of temple.
Date: ca. 25 B.C. - A.D. 1
Period: Roman
Plan:
In the east, six steps lead from the street level to a courtyard articulated by
tetrastyle porticoes at the front and rear; a transverse wall with central door
crosses the west end of the propylon.
History:
The propylon belongs to a later date than the construction of the temple, probably
to the period of Augustus, when interest in the Sanctuary was renewed with the
rededication to Athena and Augustus. The structure was never completed - bosses
remain on the columns of the west front and the paving was never smoothed.
Other Notes:
The propylon is not aligned with the central axis of the Temple but instead is
situated slightly to the south, providing a visitor to the Sanctuary with a view
of the south-east corner of the Altar and the Temple. Pilaster capitals decorated
with acanthus decoration, once believed to have articulated the interior walls
of the propylon, are now thought to have come from at least four free-standing
pilaster monuments, which once supported bronze statues, and which stood between
the south wall of the temple and the south stoa. One of the Ionic column capitals
(now in the British Museum) preserves the compass marks used in designing the
volute.
Sarah Cormack, ed.
This text is cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 2 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Priene Sarah Cormack, ed.
Type: Prytaneion
Summary: Meeting house and dining room for senate members, adjacent
to bouleuterion, in center of city.
Date: ca. 180 B.C. - A.D. 150
Period: Hellenistic/Roman
Plan:
The building in its present state takes the form of a peristyle house: a rectangular
structure with central paved, colonnaded courtyard surrounded by three small rooms
on the north, two on the west and three on the south sides. The building was entered
through a door in the north wall of the central room in the south row.
History:
The preserved remains date to the Roman Imperial period, but an older building
existed on the site. Elements which belong to the earlier, Greek building are
the walls of the three rooms in the north, a stretch of east-west wall dividing
the two rooms in the west, a short stretch of north-south wall in the south, and
two very fragmentary walls in the east. It is uncertain whether the earlier structure
had a central peristyle. A hearth in the south-east room is also identified as
belonging to the Greek period.
Other Notes:
At the entrance to the southernmost room of the western row stands a reused column
shaft carved with the following inscription: he lamprotate Prieneon Ionon polis
kai <hek>r[atiste] boule kai to philosebaston sunedrion t
This text is cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Priene
Type: Stoa
Summary: Two-aisled stoa located in the north of the agora in the
center of the city.
Date: ca. 160 B.C. - 150 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
A two-aisled stoa facing south, with 15 rooms (shops) extending for ca. 76 m.
from west end of stoa in the rear (north); closed side walls. 49 columns form
the exterior colonnade, with 24 in the interior. A flight of six steps connects
the stoa to the agora below.
History:
Although the market clearly constituted an early element of Priene's town plan,
the Sacred Stoa itself was not built until the middle of the second century B.C.
The form of the building which must have occupied this location before the construction
of the Sacred Stoa is not known, although the excavators postulate that a shorter
stoa, possibly equal in length to the stoa along the south of the agora, stood
here, based on the following evidence: the rear (north) wall of the rooms of the
Sacred Stoa is the earliest element of the structure, and may once have formed
the rear wall of an older stoa without rear rooms. Furthermore, the eastern section
of the flight of six steps connecting the agora to the level of the stoa is of
later construction, containing reused blocks; this suggests that the original
stoa which stood here was shorter than the Sacred Stoa, and that the staircase
was extended when the longer Sacred Stoa was constructed. This reconstruction,
postulating an earlier structure, has been rejected by one scholar, Miller 1978,
123-124, who argues that the Sacred Stoa itself may well date to the fourth century
B.C. The new stoa of the second century B.C., in its extended form, would have
concealed the facades of the Bouleuterion and Prytaneion to the east. In the Imperial
period, one of the rear rooms was probably dedicated to the cult of Roma.
Other Notes:
A fragmentary text inscribed on the architrave of the exterior colonnade refers
to the donor of the building: [-- BASIL]EOS ARI[ARATHOU --] The text was restored
by the excavators as follows: basileus Orophernes basil]eos Ari[arathou... "King
Orophernes, son of King Ariarathes...." In this reading, the Cappadocian ruler
Orophernes, significant benefactor of other structures at Priene (including notably
the cult statue of the Temple of Athena) would have been responsible for the construction
of the Sacred Stoa in ca. 155 B.C. An alternative restoration of the inscription
is as follows: [huper basil]eos Ari[arathou Epiphanous kai Philopatoros] restoring
as the benefactor of the stoa Ariarathes VI, and providing a terminus post quem
of ca. 130 B.C. Some have suggested, however, that the inscription may not belong
to the stoa, and furthermore that the block on which it is inscribed may not be
an architrave, but rather a statue base: Miller 1978, 122-23. Miller would prefer
to date the Sacred Stoa, and indeed the entire insula of which it forms a part,
to the fourth century B.C. The title of the building is derived from an inscription
carved on the west end wall: the inscription, of post-Mithradatic date, honors
one Aulus Aemilius Zosimos and refers to the inscribing of the decree en tei hierai
stoai tei en tei agorai "in the Sacred Stoa in the Agora," leading some scholars
to suggest that one of the exedrae incorporated into the northern row of shops
functioned as a cult center for Dea Roma already in the second century B.C.
Sarah Cormack, ed.
This text is cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 25 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
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